Abe Family (Mikawa)

Descended from Ōhiko (pg 225), a son of Kōgen-tennō (pg 160).

Abe Masakatsu -> Abe Masatsugu

Abe Family (Mutsu)

Abe Family (Suruga)

Abe Hirafu

Abe Hirafu was a governor of Koshi. He fought against the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan (called, at that time, ebisu, which basically just means 'barbarian'). This was in 658. Three years later, in 661, he led an expedition into Korea to help Kudara, a Japanese colony / protectorate / ally on the Korean peninsula.

Note that the early dates on this info means that everything is suspect (more than usual) and should be double and triple checked.

Abe Hirafu might be the anscestor of one or more of the Abe clans, as well as the Ando and Akita clans.

Abe Iso

Lived 1865 to 1949

Christian Socialist from Fukuoka Prefecture. Studied at Doshisha University and abroad. Became a Unitarian preacher. Taught at Tokyo College from 1899.

Active in the socialist movement.

1900 --- became president of the Socialist Society

1901 --- one of the founders of Shakaiminshuto

1924 --- became president of the Japan Fabian Society

1928 --- elected to the Diet

1932 --- chairman of Shakaitaishuto

Withdrew from politics in 1940

Abekawa River

A river which starts in Suruga and whose mouth is near Shizuoka.

Abe Masakatsu

Lived 1541 to 1600

Masakatsu was an important member of the Abe clan of Mikawa. He served Tokugawa Ieyasu until his (Masakatsu's) death in 1600 (just coincidence, or did he die at Sekigahara?). In 1590, Ieyasu gave him Ichihara (in Izu), worth 5,000 koku.

Abe Masatsugu

Lived 1569 to 1647

Abe Masatsugu was the eldest son of Masakatsu. After Sekigahara, Tokugawa Ieyasu promoted him to daimyō status.

Abe Muneto

Abe Nakamaro

Lived 701 to 770

Abe Nobuyuki

Lived 1875 to 1953

Soldier and Politician from Ishikawa Prefecture. Put on reserve list with rank of general in 1936.

Prime Minister from 30 Aug. 1939. Took over from Hiranuma Kiichirō (pg. 107) and was replaced by Yonai Mitsumasa (pg. 309) in January of 1940.

Joined the House of Peers in 1942.

President of the Imperial Rule Assistance Political Association (pg. 121).

Governor of Korea from July 1944.

Cabinet Positions

Table 1Cabinet Positions Held by Abe Nobuyuki

Cabinet

Table 2Abe Nobuyuki's Cabinet

Abeno Plain

A plain in Settsu. Abeno was the scene of several battles during the Warring States period.

Abe Sadato

Lived 1019 to 1062

Abe Seimei

Died 1005.

Abe Seimei was a famous astronomer.

Abe Yoritoki

Abukumagawa River

aka Akurigawa.

A river with source at Asahi-san and mouth near Iwanuma.

Abutsu

aka Abutsu-ni, aka Hokurin-zenni

Achi no Omi

Adachi Family

A family of samurai who were descended from Fujiwara Yamakage (pg XXX). They are presented here because of their successes during the Minamoto---Taira wars and their subsequent affiliation with the Hōjō Family (pg XXX).

Adachi Kagemori

Died 1248,

A warrior of the Adachi family, Kagemori was the son of Morinaga. He served with Minamoto Yoriie but became a monk when Minamoto Sanetomo died. This did not stop him from joining the Hōjō Family for the Shōkyū War, however.

Hōjō Tsunetoki and Hōjō Tokiyori were his grandsons.

see also:

Minamoto Sanetomo (pg XXX), Minamoto Yoriie (pg XXX), Hōjō Family (pg XXX), Shōkyū War (pg XXX), Hōjō Tsunetoki (pg XXX), Hōjō Tokiyori (pg XXX)

Adachi Kenzō

Lived 1864 to 1948.

Politician from Kumamoto.

Involved in the murder of the Korean queen in 1895.

Founding member of the Kumamoto National Party.

Elected to the House of Representatives in 1902.

Active in the Rikken Doshikai, Kenseikai, and Minseito.

Formed and was president of the Kokumin Domei in 1932.

Cabinet Posts

Table 3Cabinet Positions Held by Adachi Kenzō

see also:

Kumamoto National Party (pg XXX), Rikken Doshikai (pg XXX), Kenseikai (pg XXX), Minseito (pg XXX), Kokumin Domei (pg XXX).

Adachi Morinaga

Died 1200

Adachi Morinaga was a warrior who fought for Minamoto Yoritomo (pg XXX) against the Taira (pg XXX).

After the wars, he became a monk and took the name Rensai.

Adachi Yasumori

Died 1285

Adachi Yoshikage

Died 1255.

Aichi Prefecture

Area: 5,150 km² (1995)

Capital: Nagoya

Population: 6,770,000 (1996)

Aikoku Kōtō

Aizawa Seishi

Lived 1782 to 1863

Aizu-han

Ajiki

Akabashi Moritoki

Died 1333

Akagawa Fusanobu

Akagawa Motoyasu

Son of Akagawa Fusanobu.

Mōri retainer.

Akai Naomasa

Akamatsu Family

Akamatsu Mitsusuke

Lived 1381 to 1441

Akamatsu Norifusa

Akamatsu Norimura

Lived 1277 to 1350

Akamatsu Norisuke

Lived 1312 to 1371

Akamatsu Soshu

Lived 1721 to 1801

Akamatsu Suefusa

Akamatsu Yoshinori

Lived 1358 to 1427

Akamatsu Yoshisuke

Akashi Morishige

Died 1618.

Baptised a Christian in 1596.

Was a vassal of Ukita Hideie, the daimyō of Okayama.

Morishige fought against Tokugawa Ieyasu at Sekigahara. He surrendered to Kuroda Nagamasa.

Later, he fought for the Toyotomi at Ōsaka Castle. Somehow managed to escape the fall of the castle.

see also:

Ukita Hideie, Sekigahara, Battle of, Kuroda Nagamasa, Toyotomi Family, Ōsaka, Siege of

Akaza Naoyasu

aka Akaza Kyūbei.

Died 1606.

One of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's retainers.

Akaza Naoyasu fought at Sekigahara under Ōtani Yoshitsugu, but switched to the Eastern side during the battle.

Later Naoyasa became a retainer of Maeda Toshinaga.

Akazome Emon

Akechi Castle

Akechi Family

Akechi Mitsuharu

aka Mitsutoshi

Akechi Mitsuhide's cousin. Mitsuharu was present for his cousin's coup, but missed the Battle of Yamazaki.

He battled Hori Hidemasa at Uchidehama, lost and fled. He committed hari-kiri and supposedly wrote a poem with his own blood before dieing.

see also:

Akechi Mitsuhide, Yamazaki, Battle of, Hori Hidemasa, Uchidehama, Battle of

Akechi Mitsuhide

Lived 1526 to 1582

Akechi Mitsuhide was a general under, and the assassin of, Oda Nobunada.

When they found out about the assassination, both Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu rushed to be the first to avenge Nobunaga and take his place. Hideyoshi got to Mitsuhide first.

Mitsuhide began serving Oda Nobunaga in 1566 and recieved Sakamoto (in Ōmi, 100,000 koku) in 1571.

In 1579, he captured Yakami Castle from Hatano Hideharu by taking Hideharu's mother hostage. This accomplished Mitsuhide's goal but unfortunately, Nobunaga had the woman executed (crucified?). Naturally this did not make the Hatano family happy and a short while later several of Hideharu's (ex-?) retainers murdered Akechi Mitsuhide's mother!

Mitsuhide blamed Nobunaga for his mother's death and the attack at Honnōji in 1582 was his revenge.

Mitsuhide survived for 13 days, until he was defeated by Hideyoshi at the Battle of Yamazaki.

see also:

Oda Nobunaga, Honnōji, Seige of, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu, Hatano Hideharu, Akechi Mitsuharu, Yamazaki, Battle of, Uchidehama, Battle of

Akechi Mitsukuni

Akimoto Family

Akimoto Nagatomo

Died 1628

Akimoto Takatomo

Lived 1647 to 1714.

Akimoto Yasutomo

Lived 1580 to 1642.

Aki Province

A province in the Western part of Honshū (pg. ), part of what is today Hiroshima Prefecture (pg. ).

Akita Castle

Akita City

The capital of Akita Prefecture (pg 19).

Akita Family

Akita Kiyoshi

Welfare Minister in Abe Nobuyuki's cabinet, from 29 November 1939 to 16 January 1940

Akita Prefecture

Table 4Data on Akita Prefecture

The old Ugo Province (pg. 301) is today Akita Prefecture.

Akita Sanesue

died 1659

Sanesue served Tokugawa Ieyasu and received Shishido (in Hitachi, 50,000 koku) in 1602.

Akita Toshisue

dates currently unknown

Toshisue was the son of Sanesue. He also served the Tokugawa and received Miharu (in Mitsu, 50,000 koku) in 1645.

Akiyama Nobutomo

dates currently unknown

Nobutomo was a famous general in service of the Takeda family.

Akizuki Castle

Akizuki Tanenaga

Tanenaga served under Kuroda Nagamasa during the Korean campaign. He sided with Ishida Mitsunari at the battle of Sekigahara but managed to keep his fief (which was?) after the battle.

see also:

Kuroda Nagamasa, Korea, Invasion of Ishida Mitsunari, Sekigahara, Battle of

Akizuki Tanezane

Tanezane lost to the ōtomo (the who, what, when, where, and why is still to be researched). Sometime after that he joined the Shimazu (as an ally or a vassal?) and fought with them against Hideyoshi in Kyūshū.

After Sekigahara, he was transfered to Takanabe (in Hyūga, 20,000 koku).

Amakazu Kagemochi

Kagemochi was a famous general for the Uesugi family. Among other things, he fought at the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima (1561).

Amako Family

A samurai family that fought the Mōri family. They mostly lost. The Mōri had been one of their vassals.

see also:

Mōri Family

Amako Haruhisa

Lived 1514 to 1562.

Fought against Ōuchi Yoshitaka.

Fought against Mōri Motonari.

Mostly a failure (he lost a lot of battles and a lot of territory) but regained some of ground after Sue Harukata killed Ōuchi Yoshitaka.

see also:

Ōuchi Yoshitaka, Mōri Motonari, Sue Harukata

Amako Katsuhisa

dates currently unknown

Lost to someone at Nunobeyama (which is where?) in 1570.

Lost to Mōri Terumoto in 1571 (where? what battle?) and fled to the island of Oki.

Later returned from Oki and captured Tajima and Inaba provinces. Defended Kozuki castle for Hideyoshi against the Mōri.

Katsuhisa was attacked by Kobayakawa Takakage and Kikkawa Motoharu (at Kozuki castle?), was defeated and committed suicide.

see also:

Nunobeyama, Battle of

Mōri Terumoto, Tajima Province, Inaba Province, Kōzuki, Seige of, Kobayakawa Takakage, Kikkawa Motoharu

Amako Kunihisa

Lived 1492 to 1554

Kunihisa was the son of Tsunehisa.

Amako Okihisa

Died 1534

Okihisa was the son of Tsunehisa.

Amako Tsunehisa

Lived 1458 to 1541

Fought against Ōuchi Yoshioka

Mōri Motonari was one of his retainers

Amako Yoshihisa

Yoshihisa was the son of Amako Katsuhisa (pg XXX). He continued the family fight against the Mōri.

While besieged in Toda Castle, Yoshihisa had a retainer, Moriyama Hisakane executed. This caused most of his remaining men to desert. With no hope of holding the castle, Yoshihisa fled and became a monk.

Amakusa Shirō

aka Masuda Tokisada.

A leader of the Shimabara Rebellion, Shirō led the defence of Hara Castle and died when it fell.

see also:

Shimabara Rebellion, Hara Castle, Hara, Seige of

Amano Takashige

Lived 1503 to 1584.

Amano Yasukage

Lived 1537 to 1637.

Amari Nobuyasu

Amari Toriyasu

Died 1548

Ama Shogun

“Ama Shogun” refers to Hōjō Masako, who was the wife of Minamoto Yoritomo, and the power behind the Kamakura shōgunate after his death. She became a nun in 1199. Ama Shogun roughly means the “Nun Shogun.”

see also:

Hōjō Masako (pg. X), Minamoto Yoritomo (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Ama

Ama is a term used to refer to nuns. In English it would be something like “nun” or “sister.”

American Black Chamber

“Black Chamber” was the name used in Europe for the government section involved in codebreaking and illicit reading of private (especially diplomatic) communications. The American govenment did not set up it's own black chamber until after World War I.

The American Black Chamber (actually the Cipher Bureau) was a group of codebreakers working for the United States government (with funding from the Army and the State Department) between July 1917 and October 1929, headed by Herbert O. Yardley (pg 307). Cracking Japanese codes was a priority. Kahn ([kahn_2004], pg 62) states:

The most important target was Japan. Its belligerence toward China jeopardized America's Open Door policy. Its emigrants exacerbated American racism. Its naval growth menaced American power in the western Pacific. Its commercial expansion threatened American dominance of Far Eastern markets.

After close to a year, Yardley and his staff finally managed to break the Japanese codes and were still reading Japanese diplomatic traffic when Washington hosted the Washington Naval Conference in 1921. The information the the Cipher Bureau provided the American delegation was instrumental in getting the Japanese side to agree to a 10:6 ratio instead of the 10:7 ratio the Japanese wanted. This was the hight of Yardley's cryptanalytic career.

The Japanese Navy was not happy with the treaty and when several years later Yardley described the whole incident in his book The American Black Chamber (pg. 23), the Japanese were not amused.

Despite their success at the Washington Conference, the truth of the matter is that Yardley and his codebreakers were not as good as Yardley believed them to be. Japanese government codes were rediculously weak in the early 1920s. The real difficulty probably lay in the Japanese language, not the Japanese codes - for several months after its founding, the American Black Chamber had no one with a good command of Japanese. British codebreakers at the time considered Japanese codes hardly worth the name.

Unfortunately, for the men and women of the Cipher Bureau the flow of diplomatic telegrams dried up as companies became less willing to break the law to help the government. In Washington, William Friedman was actively exploring cryptographic frontiers for the Army - the Cipher Bureau was becoming irrelevant. However, it was moral indignation that finally doomed the bureau. Henry L. Stimpson was Secretary of State under President Hoover. When he found out about the Cipher Bureau, he was furious and withdrew funding, summing up his argument with “Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.”

The Cipher Bureau closed its doors for good on 31 October 1929 - just two days after the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began.

Sources and Suggested Reading

The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley, [yardley_1931]

The Codebreakers by David Kahn [kahn_1996]

Angō Kaidoku Nyūmon by Toshio Takagawa, [takagawa_2003]

The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail by David Kahn, [kahn_2004]

See also:

American Black Chamber, The (pg 23), Five-Powers Treaty (pg 83), Washington Naval Conference (pg 304), Yardley, Herbert O. (pg 307),

American Black Chamber, The

A book by Herbert O. Yardley (pg 307), published in 1931, dealing with American efforts to read the communications of other countries. A large part of it is devoted to describing how Yardley and his codebreakers managed to read Japanese government codes and the advantage this gave to the American side at the Washington Naval Conference.

Sources and Suggested Reading

The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley, [yardley_1931]

The Codebreakers by David Kahn [kahn_1996]

Angō Kaidoku Nyūmon by Toshio Takagawa, [takagawa_2003]

The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail by David Kahn, [kahn_2004]

See Also

American Black Chamber (pg 22), Kowalewski, Jan (pg 171), Yardley, Herbert O. (pg 307), Washington Naval Conference (pg 304)

Anarchism

Kōtoku Shūsui led the anarchist movement until his death in 1911. It continued under Ōsugi Sakae until his murder in 1923. Both men were anarcho-syndicalists and advocated direct action by workers.

Anarchists were at odds with other socialist groups. With the success of the Russian Revolution and the death of Ōsugi, communist groups took control of the labor unions away from the anarcho-syndicalists.

See Also

Ōsugi Sakae (pg 234), Kōtoku Shūsui (pg. 170), Red Flag Incident (pg. 238),

Anayama Nobukimi

Lived 1541 to 1582.

aka Baisetsu Nobukimi.

Ando Chikasue

Ando Morinari

Ando Shigenaga

Ando Shigenobu

Lived 1558 to 1622

Anegakoji Family

Anegakoji Koretsuna

Lived 1540 to 1587

Anegakoji Yoshiyori

Died 1571

Anegawa, Battle of

Took place in 1570.

Oda Nobunaga, with Tokugawa Ieyasu and Inaba Ittetsu, fought the combined forces of Asai Nagamasa and Asakura Yoshikage. Tokugawa forces engaged the Asakura while Oda forces dealt with the Asai.

The Tokugawa forces finished off the Asakura and then turned and hit the Asai's right flank. Inaba had been held in reserve, came forward and hit the Asai left flank.

see also:

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Inaba Ittetsu (pg. X), Asai Nagamasa (pg. X), Asakura Yoshikage (pg. X)

An'ei

Nengō: 1772--1780

Angen

Nengō: 1175--1176

Ankan-tennō

The 27^th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 531 to 535.

Ankokuji Ekei

Died 1600.

Ankō-tennō

The 20^th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned from 453 to 456.

Anna

Nengō: 968--969.

Annei-tennō

The 3^rd Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 549 to 511 B.C.

Ansei Purge

A purge, in 1858--1859, of over 100 people from the bakufu, various han, and the Imperial court. Eight of those `purged' were also executed. It was carried out by Ii Naosuke in an effort to quiet opposition to his handling of the question of shōgunal succession and the signing of the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce.

(Todo: Add more details on the succession dispute and the people who were purged.)

see also:

Ii Naosuke (pg. X), U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce (pg. X),

Ansei

Nengō: 1854--1859

Ansei Treaties

See U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce on page XREF

Antei

Nengō: 1227--1228

Antoku-tennō

The 81^st emperor of Japan.

Reigned from 1180 to 1183.

There were two nengō during his reign, Yōwa (pg XREF) which lasted from 1181 to 1182 and Juei (pg XREF), from 1182 to 1183.

Anwa

Nengō: 968--969

Aoki Kazuo

Finance Minister in Abe Nobuyuki's cabinet, from 30 August 1939 to 16January 1940.

Aoki Shigekane

Aomori City

The capital of Aomori Prefecture.

Aomori Prefecture

Area: 9,605 km² (1995)

Capital: Aomori

Population: 1,510,000 (1996)

Aoyama Tadanari

Aoyama Yukinari

Arahata Kanson

Lived 1887 to 1981

aka Arahata Katsuzo

Mr. Arahata participated in many of the socialist movements in his career. He started as a socialist, became an syndico-anarchist and eventually a communist and ended up serving in the Diet as a representative of the postwar Japan Socialist Party.

Arahata was from Yokohama.

He joined the Heiminsha in 1904 and was among those arrested for the Red Flag Incident of 1908.

Arahata published Kindai Shiso with Osugi Sakae.

He was member of the first Central Committee of the Japan Communist Party.

Belonged to the Rono Faction.

He was on the Central Executive Committee of the Japan Socialist Party from 1946 to 1948.

Served in the Diet from 1946 to 1949 and spent his time after that writing.

see also:

Heiminsha (pg. X), Red Flag Incident (pg. X), Kindai Shiso (pg. X), Ōsugi Sakae (pg. X), Japan Communist Party (pg. X), Rono Faction (pg. X), Japan Socialist Party (pg. X), Socialism (pg. X), Anarchism (pg. X),

Araki Murashige

Araki Sadao

Born 26 May 1877 to 2 Nov. 1966.

Soldier.

Originally from Tokyo.

Sadao was a leading member of the “Imperial Way Faction” (Kodoha). He was put on the reserve list as a result of the February 26 Uprising.

Minister of Education from 1938 to 1939.

He was tried as a “Class A” war criminal and sentenced to life.

Released from prison in 1955 for health reasons.

Cabinet Positions

Table 5Cabinet Positions Held by Araki Sadao

see also:

February 26 Revolt (pg. X), Imperial Way Faction (pg. X), War Crimes, Class A (pg. X),

Arima Harunobu

Possibly born in 1561. Died on 6 May 1612.

Arima Naozumi

Arima Tadayori

Arima Toyouji

Lived 1570 to 1642.

Arima Yoshisada

Lived 1521 to 1576.

Arquebus

Asahina Yasutomo

Asai Family

Asai Sukemasa --> Hisamasa --> Nagamasa

Asai Hisamasa

Lived 1524 to 1673.

The son of Asai Sukemasa. Lost to the Sasaki and retired in favor of his son Nagamasa.

Asai Nagamasa

Lived 1545 to 28 Aug. 1573.

Son of Asai Hisamasa, from whom he took over in (year??). Nagamasa successfully battled both Rokkaku Yoshitaka and Saitō Tatsuoki.

Married Oda Nobunaga's sister but later joined the Asakura family and the monks of Mt. Hiei against Nobunaga. Nagamasa was defeated by Oda and Tokugawa Ieyasu at the battle of Anegawa in 1570.

In 1573, Oda laid siege to Nagamasa's castle at Odani. Unfortunately for Nagamasa, he was there at the time. He committed suicide and in exchange, Oda spared Nagamasa's family (which of course included his---Nobunaga's---own sister).

Three of Nagamasa's daughters are famous for marrying famous men.

see also:

Asai Hisamasa (pg. X), Rokkaku Yoshitaka (pg. X), Saitō Tatsuoki (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Odani, Seige of (pg. X), Asakura Family (pg. X), Anegawa, Battle of (pg. X),

Asai Sukemasa

Lived 1495 to 1546.

Father of Asai Hisamasa. Built Odani Castle. Fought the Sasaki family.

Asakura Family

Asakura Hirokage

Asakura Kageakira

Lived 1529 to 1574.

Asakura Kagetake

Asakura Nobumasa

Lived 1583 to 1637.

Asakura Norikage

Lived 1474 to 1552.

Asakura Sadakage

Lived 1473 to 1512.

Asakura Takakage

Lived 1493 to 1546.

Asakura Toshikage

Died 1475?

Lived 1428 to 1481?

Asakura Yoshikage

Lived 24 Sept. 1533 to 20 Aug. 1573.

Asano Family

Asano Nagaakira

Lived 1586 to 1632.

Asano Nagamasa

Lived 1546 to 1610.

Asano Naganori

Lived 1667 to 1701.

Asano Nagatsune

Died 1719.

Asano Shoichirō

Lived 1848 to 1930

Businessman. From a samurai family in the Toyama region. Purchased Fukagawa Cement Works from the government in 1884, with help from Shibusawa Eiichi. Diversified his business interests, which eventually became a minor zaibatsu. Without a bank, it remained minor.

see also:

Fukagawa Cement Works (pg. X), Shibusawa Eiichi (pg. X), Zaibatsu (pg. X)

Asano Yukinaga

Lived 1576 to 1613.

Asari Umanosuke

Ashida Hitoshi

Lived 1887 to 1959.

Was Prime Minister from 10 March 1948 to 15 October 1948. He replaced Katayama Tetsu and was replaced by Yoshida Shigeru.

Cabinet Positions

Table 6Cabinet Positions Held by Ashida Hitoshi

Cabinet

Table 7Ashida Hitoshi's Cabinet

see also:

Katayama Tetsu (pg. X), Yoshida Shigeru (pg. X)

Ashigaru

Ashikaga Chachamaru

Died 1490.

Ashikaga Masatomo

Lived 12 July 1435 to 5 April 1491.

Ashikaga Shōgunate

The Ashikaga Shōgunate was founded by Ashikaga Takauji in 1338. It lasted in theory until 1573 although in reality the Shōgun had lost control of most of the country long before that.

see also:

Ashikaga Takauji (pg. X), Ashikaga Yoshiaki (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), List of Ashigaka Shōgun (pg. X),

Ashikaga Tadayoshi

Lived 1306 to 26 Feb. 1352.

Ashikaga Takauji

The 1^st Ashikaga shōgun.

Lived 1305 to 30 April 1358.

Ruled 11 Aug. 1338 to 30 April 1358.

Son of Ashikaga Sadauji.

Fought in the Genkō War (1331--1333).

Turned against the Hōjō and took Rokuhara (who, what, and where?). For which he was granted Musashi, Shimōsa, Hitachi.

Defeated Hōjō Tokiyuki and took Kamakura. Declared himself shōgun. Lost to Nitta Yoshisada in Mikawa and Suruga.

Beat someone in the mountains in Hakone which helped him rally other daimyō to his cause. Later took Kyoto. Lost Kyoto to Kitabatake Akiie, Nitta Yoshisada, and Kusunoki Masashige (among others). Lost again near Hyōgo and fled to Kyūshū.

Defeated Kikuchi Taketoshi at Tatara-hama in Chikuzen. Returned to Honshū and defeated Nitta and Kusunoki at Minato-gawa.

Entered Kyoto, deposed Go-Daigo and installed Kōmyō as Emperor. Go-Daigo fled and established the southern court. Takauji spent the rest of his life fighting against samurai loyal to the southern emperor.

Ashikaga Takauji established the Ashigaka Shogunate, which lasted, in theory, until 1573. In practice, the Ashikaga Shogun lost much of their power long before then.

The period of Ashikaga rule is also known as the Muromachi period.

Ashikaga Yoshiakira

Lived 18 June 1330 to 7 Dec. 1367.

Ruled 8 Dec. 1358 to 7 Dec. 1367.

The 2^nd Ashikaga shōgun.

Ashikaga Yoshiaki

Lived 3 Nov. 1537 to 28 Aug. 1597.

Ruled 18 Oct. 1568 to 18 July 1573.

15^th Ashikaga Shogun

Yoshiaki was installed in 1567 as the 15^th Ashikaga Shōgun by Oda Nobunaga. Yoshiaki was not quite as tame as Nobunaga thought however - Yoshiaki conspired with Takeda Shingen to free himself from Oda's control. Nobunaga deposed Yoshiaki in 1673 and didn't bother replacing him, which is a pretty good indication of just how powerless / meaningless the Shōgunate had become.

Ashikaga Yoshiharu

Lived 5 March 1511 to 4 May 1550.

Ruled 25 Dec. 1521 to 20 Dec. 1545.

12^th Ashikaga Shogun. First son of Ashikaga Yoshizumi.

Powerless. Controlled by the daimyo. Eventually forced to flee. (Why? From whom? To where?)

Ashikaga Yoshihide

Lived 1564 to 1568

Ruled 1568--1568

14^th Ashikaga Shogun

Chosen (by whom?) as a two year old to replace Yoshiteru, but did not get Oda Nobunaga's support. With such a powerful daimyo against him, Yoshihide had no hope of ever getting to rule (never mind his age). His handlers fled, taking him with them of course, and Yoshihide died at the tender age of four.

Who was behind him, pulling the strings in his name? Seriously, there is no way a two year old was deciding anything. Was it his mother or a grandparent? A cousin or some faction at court? Obviously he had to have had some support from a few daimyo, but which ones and why?

Ashikaga Yoshihisa

Lived 23 Nov. 1465 to 26 March 1489.

Ruled 19 Dec. 1474 to 26 March 1489.

The 9^th Ashikaga shōgun. The first son of Ashikaga Yoshimasa.

Ashikaga Yoshikatsu

Lived 9 Feb. 1434 to 21 July 1443.

Ruled 7 Nov. 1442 to 21 July 1443.

The 7^th Ashikaga shōgun. The first son of Ashikaga Yoshinori.

Ashikaga Yoshikazu

Lived 24 July 1407 to 27 Feb. 1425.

Ruled 18 March 1423 to 27 Feb. 1425.

The 5^th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Ashikaga Yoshimochi.

Ashikaga Yoshimasa

Lived 2 Jan. 1436 to 7 Jan. 1490.

Ruled 29 April 1449 to 19 Dec. 1473.

The 8^th Ashikaga Shogun. Son of Ashikaga Yoshinori, who was the 6^th Ashikaga Shogun.

Yoshimasa was also known as Yoshishige.

Yoshimasa was shōgun during the Ōnin War which ravaged Kyoto.

He build the Ginkakuji.

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu

Lived 22 Aug. 1358 to 6 May 1408.

Ruled 30 Dec. 1368 to 17 Dec. 1394.

The 3^rd Ashikaga Shogun. Son of Yoshiakira, the second shōgun.

Ended the Nambokuchō War.

Build the Kinkakuji.

Ashikaga Yoshimochi

Lived 12 Feb. 1386 to 18 Jan. 1428.

Ruled 17 Dec. 1394 to 18 March 1423.

The 4^th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Yoshimitsu, the third shōgun.

Ashikaga Yoshinori

Lived 13 June 1394 to 24 June 1441.

Ruled 15 March 1429 to 24 June 1441.

The 6^th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Yoshimitsu, the third shōgun.

Ashikaga Yoshitane

Lived 30 July 1466 to 9 April 1523.

Ruled 5 July 1490 to 29 June 1493. And again from 1 July 1508 to 25 Dec. 1521.

Yoshitane was the 10^th and 12^th Ashikaga Shōgun.

Also known as Yoshiki or Yoshitada.

Yoshitane lost (to whom?) at Shōgakuji in 1491 (?). He fled and was replaced by Ashikaga Yoshizumi (page XXX).

Ashikaga Yoshiteru

Lived 10 March 1536 to 19 May 1565.

Ruled 20 Dec. 1546 to 19 May 1565.

The 13^th Ashikaga Shogun. First son of Yoshiharu, the twelfth shōgun.

Yoshiteru allied with Hosokawa Harumoto.

Was attacked by Miyoshi Chōkei and Matsunaga Hisahide, lost and committed suicide.

Ashikaga Yoshizumi

Lived 15 Dec. 1480 to 14 Aug. 1511.

Ruled 27 Dec. 1494 to 16 April 1508.

11^th Ashikaga Shogun.

Replaced Yoshitane in 1491 but later Yoshitane replaced him.

Ashina Family

Ashina Morikiyo

Lived 1490 to 1553.

Ashina Morishige

Ashina Moritaka

Lived 1560 to 1583

Ashina Moriuji

Lived 1521 to 1580.

Aso Family

Aso Hisashi

Lived 1891 to 1940.

Aso Koretoyo

Lived 1543 to 1584.

Atagi Fuyuyasu

Died 1564.

Atagi Nobuyasu

Atobe Katsusuke

Lived 1529 to 1582.

Atsuji Sadahise

Awaji Province

The island of Awaji, between Honshū and Shikoku. Today it is part of Hyōgo Prefecture.

see also:

Hyōgo (pg. X),

Ayukawa Kiyonaga

Ayukawa Yoshisuke

Lived 6 Nov. 1880 to 13 Feb. 1967.

Also known as Aikawa Yoshisuke.

A businessman (check that) and politician originally from Yamaguchi Prefecture.

Azukizaka, Battle of (1542)

Took place in 1542.

Oda Nobuhide defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto.

see also:

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X),

Imagawa Yoshimoto (pg. X),

Azukizawa, Battle of (1564) (pg. X),

Azukizaka, Battle of (1564)

Took place in 1564.

Tokugawa Ieyasu fought the Ikkō-ikki (pg. X).

Baba Family - Buzen Province

Baba Family

Baba Nobufusa

Baba Nobuharu

Died 1582

Baba Nobukatsu

Lived 1514 to 1575

Baba Nobushige

Baba Tatsui

Lived 15 May 1850 to 1 Nov. 1888.

Baba Torasada

Bakin

aka Kyokutei Bakin

Lived 1767 to 1848

Bakumatsu

Japanese: 幕末

The name given to the last years of the Tokugawa Shōgunate.

Ban Kokei

Lived 1733 to 1806

Ban Nobutomo

Lived 1775 to 1848

Battles

Rather than list every single battle in the history of Japan with a redirect to another page, there is just this one. Battles are listed in `(Name), Battle of' form so look under `name' instead. Thus the Battle of Sekigahara is found under `Sekigahara, Battle of' in the S's.

The index also has a listing of all the battles under their entry names as well as a long list under `Battles'.

Bekki Shozaemon

aka Betsuki Shozaemon??

Died 21 Sep 1652.

Ben En

Died 1279

Bengyoku

aka Kei-a Shonin

Lived 1818 to 1880

Benkei

aka Musashi-bo

Died 1189

Warrior and retainer of Minamoto Yoshitsune. Famous for his martial exploits.

see also:

Minamoto Yoshitsune (pg. X),

Ben no Naishi

Benten

aka Benzaiten

Bessho Family

Bessho Harusada

Bessho Nagaharu

Lived 1558 to 1580

Bessho Toyoharu

Bifuku Mon-in

aka Fujiwara Toku-ko

Lived 1117 to 1160

Bingo Province

A province on the Inland Sea side of western Honshū, in what is today Hiroshima Prefecture. Bingo bordered on Bitchū, Hōki, Izumo, Iwami, and Aki Provinces.

see also:

Hiroshima Prefecture (pg. X), Aki Province (pg. X), Bitchū Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Iwaki Province (pg. X), Izumo Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X)

Bingo no Saburo

aka Kojima Takanori

Bishamon

Bitatsu-tennō

aka Osada,

aka Nunakurafutotama-shiki

Reigned 572 to 585.

The 30^th Emperor of Japan.

Bitchū Province

A province on the Inland Sea side of western Honshū, in what is today Okayama Prefecture. Bitchū bordered on Hōki, Mimasaki, Bizen, and Bingo Provinces.

See Also

Okayama Prefecture (pg. X), Bingo Province (pg. X), Bizen Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X)

Bitō Family

Bitō Nishu

Lived 1745 to 1813

Bizen Province

A province on the Inland Sea side of Honshū, in what is today Okayama Prefecture. Bizen borders on Mimasaki, Harima, and Bitchū Provinces.

see also:

Okayama Prefecture (pg. X),

Bitchū Province (pg. X),

Harima Province (pg. X),

Mimasaka Province (pg. X),

Bojo Family

A kuge family descended from Fujiwara Morosuke.

see also:

Fujiwara Family (pg. X),

Fujiwara Morosuke (pg. X),

Bomon Kiyotada

Died 1338.

A member of the kuge class. Son of Fujiwara Toshisuke, Kiyotada worked against Ashikaga Takauji at the court.

Bon

The festival of the dead. Some parts of Japan celebrate Bon (also Obon) in mid-July, others in mid-August.

The spirits of the dead are believed to return to earth at Bon. During this holiday, which generally lasts about three days, many people return to their hometowns to visit their families and say hello to their ancestors.

Buddhism

Bukkyo in Japanese. One of the two main religious influences on Japanese culture (Shintō is the other).

The man known as the Buddha lived around 550 B.C. in India and before he died he started a religion whose impact on Asia cannot be measured. Although it eventually died out in its native India, Buddhism spread to Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea, and Japan, as well as the countries of South East Asia. Buddhism was already over a thousand years old when it reached Japan and had changed considerably in those years.

The Buddha was concerned with just one thing --- how to end suffering. Indians back then, like many today, believed that all living things are reborn in a constant cycle of birth and death. The Buddha also believed this and concluded that if we could break free from this cycle, we could end the suffering that goes with living. His Four Noble Truths sum it up better than I can:

1. All existence is suffering.

2. Suffering is caused by desire.

3. If you end desire then you end suffering.

4. Following the Eight Fold Path will enable you to end desire.

The Eight Fold Path describes the proper way to live to achieve enlightenment. It is not an easy path, and in theory it could take you several lifetimes to finally transcend the cycle of birth and death. The path demands great sacrifice and discipline. Obviously such a seemingly pessimistic and difficult religion is going to have some public relations problems. Joe (and Jane) Layman doesn't have enough spare time to spend hours sitting on his butt meditating. Neither are most people real interested in giving up married life. So why has Buddhism been so popular? The answer is simple: in Tibet and China it mixed with local shamanistic ideas and practices to become a “Big Vehicle” offering rituals and prayers to comfort the common people and offer them some hope of salvation in this lifetime. The Buddha himself was deified. Eventually there were a multitude of schools (sects) in East Asia each stressing some element of the Buddha's teachings or those of popular priests after him. In Southeast Asia Buddhism was not exposed to Tibetan or Chinese practices and so has remained much closer to original Buddhism. The Buddhism which cameinto Japan was of the “Big Vehicle” sort. Each class found a school of Buddhism that suited its outlook and station. Thus, the imperial court was drawn to sects heavy in ritual and philosophy. Commoners generally went for the simpler sects which promised them salvation.

The samurai found Zen Buddhism perfectly suited to their needs --- the need to die at anytime without any hesitation.

Add info on the introduction of Buddhism to Japan and the various schools.

Bukeyashiki

aka “Samurai District'', the Bukeyashiki is an area in Kanazawa with old samurai houses from the Tokugawa Period.

see also:

Kanazawa City (pg. X),

Tokugawa Shōgunate (pg. X),

Bukko Kokushi

aka Sogen

Lived 1226 to 1286

Bukkyo

see Buddhism on page XXX.

Bummei

Nengō: 1469--1486

Bumpō

Nengō: 1317--1318.

Bun'an

Nengō: 1444--1448

Bun'ei

Nengō: 1264--1274

Bungo Province

A province in eastern Kyūshū, which bordered on Buzen, Hyūga, Higo, Chikugo, and Chikuzen Provinces. Today the area is Ōita Prefecture.

see also:

Buzen Province (pg. X),

Chikugo Province (pg. X),

Chikuzen Province (pg. X),

Higo Province (pg. X),

Hyūga Province (pg. X),

Ōita Prefecture (pg. X),

Bunji

Nengō: 1185--1189

Bunkan

Died 1357

Bunka

Nengō: 1804--1817

Bunki

Nengō: 1501--1503

Bunkyū

Nengō: 1861--1863.

Bunnan

Nengō: 1444--1448.

aka Bun'an.

Bun'ō

Nengō: 1260.

Bunreki

Nengō: 1234

aka Bunryaku.

Bunroku

Nengō: 1592--1595

Bunryaku

Nengō: 1234

aka Bunreki.

Bunsei

Nengō: 1818--1829

Bunshō

Nengō: 1466.

Buntoku-tennō

see Montoku-tennō on page XXX.

Bunwa

Nengō of the Northern dynasty: 1352--1355

Bunya Family

aka Fumiya Family

Buretsu-tennō

aka Ohatsuse-waka-sasagi.

The 25^th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 499 to 506.

Buson

aka Taniguchi Buson

aka Yosa

Butsu Sorai

aka Ogui Sorai

Lived 1666 to 1728

Buzen Province

A province in northern Kyūshū, which bordered on Bungo and Chikuzen Provinces. Today the area is a part of Fukuoka Prefecture.

Domains (feifs) include Nakatsu, worth 120,000 koku and held by Kuroda Nagamasa prior to the Battle of Sekigahara (he was moved to a bigger domain after that battle).

see also:

Bungo Province (pg. X), Chikuzen Province (pg. X), Fukuoka Prefecture (pg. X), Kuroda Nagamasa (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X)

Chang Tso-lin - Currency

Chang Tso-lin

Died 4 June 1928

Chang was a warlord in Northern China. He was assassinated by officers of the Japanese Kwantung army.

Chian

Chiba City

The capital of Chiba Prefecture.

Chiba Family

Chiba Kanetane

Chiba Prefecture

Area: 5,156 km² (1995)

Capital: Chiba

Population: 5,780,000 (1996)

Chiba Sadatane

Lived 1291 to 1351

Chiba Sanetane

Chiba Shigetane

Chiba Takatane

Chiba Tanenao

Chiba Toshitane

Lived 1528 to 1559

Chiba Tsunetane

Born on the 24^th day of the 5^th month of 1118.

Died on the 24^th day of the 3^rd month of 1201.

Chikamatsu Monzaemon

aka Sugimori Nobumori

Lived 1653 to 1724

Chikugo Province

An old province in the area that is today part of Fukuoka Prefecture, on Kyūshū. Chikugo bordered on Hizen, Chikuzen, Bungo, and Higo Provinces.

see also:

Bungo Province (pg. X),

Chikuzen Province (pg. X),

Fukuoka (pg. X),

Higo Province (pg. X),

Hizen Province (pg. X),

Kyūshū (pg. X),

Chikusa Family (daimyo)

Chikusa Family (kuge)

Chikusa Tadaharu

Chikusa Tadamoto

Chikusa Takamichi

Chikuzen Province

Province in the area that is today part of Fukuoka Prefecture on Kyūshū. Chikuzen bordered on Buzen, Bungo, Chikugo, and Hizen.

Domains (feifs) include Najima, worth 520,000 koku and granted to Kuroda Nagamasa after the Battle of Sekigahara.

see also:

Bungo Province (pg. X),

Buzen Province (pg. X),

Chikugo Province (pg. X),

Fukuoka (pg. X),

Hizen Province (pg. X),

Kuroda Nagamasa (pg. X),

Kyūshū (pg. X),

Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X),

Chiryaku

Chitsu

Cho Densu

aka Mincho

Lived 1352 to 1431.

Chōgen

Nengō: 1028--1036.

Chōhō

Nengō: 999--1003.

Chōji

Nengō: 1104--1105.

Chōjō

Nengō: 1132--1134.

aka Chōshō.

Chōkan

Nengō: 1163--1164.

Chōkei-tennō

The 98^th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1368 to 1383.

Chōkyō

Nengō: 1487--1488.

Chōkyū

Nengo: 1040--1043.

Chōreki

Nengō: 1037--1039.

aka Chōryaku.

Chōroku

Nengō: 1457--1459.

Chōryaku

Nengō: 1037--1039.

aka Chōreki.

Chōshō

Nengō: 1132--1134.

aka Chōjō.

Chōsokabe Family

Chōsokabe Kunichika

Lived 1504 to 1560.

Chōsokabe Morichika

Lived 1575 to 1615.

Was on the losing side at Sekigahara. He later joined the defenders at Osaka Castle, for which he was beheaded after the castle fell.

Chōsokabe Motochika

Lived 1538 to 19 May 1599.

Chōsokabe Nobuchika

Lived 1565 to 1587.

Chōtoku

Nengō: 995--998.

Cho Tsugutsura

Lived 1522 to 1577.

Cho Tsuratatsu

Chōwa

Nengō: 1012--1016.

Chūai-tennō

The 14^th Emperor of Japan.

Chūkyō-tennō

The 85^th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 10 Oct. 1218 to 20 May 1234.

Reigned 20 April 1221 to 9 July 1221.

Class `A' War Crimes

See War Crimes, Class A on page XXX

Constitution of 1889

This is a translation of the first constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1889.

CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN, 1889

Imperial Oath Sworn in the Sanctuary in the Imperial Palace (Tsuge-bumi)

We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government.

In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws formulated into express provisions of law, so that, on the one hand, Our Imperial posterity may possess an express guide for the course they are to follow, and that, on the other, Our subjects shall thereby be enabled to enjoy a wider range of action in giving Us their support, and that the observance of Our laws shall continue to the remotest ages of time. We will thereby to give greater firmness to the stability of Our country and to promote the welfare of all the people within the boundaries of Our dominions; and We now establish the Imperial House Law and the Constitution. These Laws come to only an exposition of grand precepts for the conduct of the government, bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors. That we have been so fortunate in Our reign, in keeping with the tendency of the times, as to accomplish this work, We owe to the glorious Spirits of the Imperial Founder of Our House and of Our other Imperial Ancestors.

We now reverently make Our prayer to Them and to Our Illustrious Father, and implore the help of Their Sacred Spirits, and make to Them solemn oath never at this time nor in the future to fail to be an example to our subjects in the observance of the Laws hereby established.

May the heavenly Spirits witness this Our solemn Oath.

Imperial Rescript on the Promulgation of the Constitution

Whereas We make it the joy and glory of Our heart to behold the prosperity of Our country, and the welfare of Our subjects, We do hereby, in virtue of the Supreme power We inherit from Our Imperial Ancestors, promulgate the present immutable fundamental law, for the sake of Our present subjects and their descendants.

The Imperial Founder of Our House and Our other Imperial ancestors, by the help and support of the forefathers of Our subjects, laid the foundation of Our Empire upon a basis, which is to last forever. That this brilliant achievement embellishes the annals of Our country, is due to the glorious virtues of Our Sacred Imperial ancestors, and to the loyalty and bravery of Our subjects, their love of their country and their public spirit. Considering that Our subjects are the descendants of the loyal and good subjects of Our Imperial Ancestors, We doubt not but that Our subjects will be guided by Our views, and will sympathize with all Our endeavors, and that, harmoniously cooperating together, they will share with Us Our hope of making manifest the glory of Our country, both at home and abroad, and of securing forever the stability of the work bequeathed to Us by Our Imperial Ancestors.

Preamble (or Edict) (Joyu)

Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ancestors, ascended the throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal; desiring to promote the welfare of, and to give development to the moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved subjects, the very same that have been favored with the benevolent care and affectionate vigilance of Our Ancestors; and hoping to maintain the prosperity of the State, in concert with Our people and with their support, We hereby promulgate, in pursuance of Our Imperial Rescript of the 12th day of the 10th month of the 14th year of Meiji, a fundamental law of the State, to exhibit the principles, by which We are guided in Our conduct, and to point out to what Our descendants and Our subjects and their descendants are forever to conform.

The right of sovereignty of the State, We have inherited from Our Ancestors, and We shall bequeath them to Our descendants. Neither We nor they shall in the future fail to wield them, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution hereby granted.

We now declare to respect and protect the security of the rights and of the property of Our people, and to secure to them the complete enjoyment of the same, within the extent of the provisions of the present Constitution and of the law.

The Imperial Diet shall first be convoked for the 23rd year of Meiji and the time of its opening shall be the date, when the present Constitution comes into force.

When in the future it may become necessary to amend any of the provisions of the present Constitution, We or Our successors shall assume the initiative right, and submit a project for the same to the Imperial Diet. The Imperial Diet shall pass its vote upon it, according to the conditions imposed by the present Constitution, and in no otherwise shall Our descendants or Our subjects be permitted to attempt any alteration thereof.

Our Ministers of State, on Our behalf, shall be held responsible for the carrying out of the present Constitution, and Our present and future subjects shall forever assume the duty of allegiance to the present Constitution.

I. THE EMPEROR

Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal.

Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.

Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution.

Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed.

Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives.

Article 8. The Emperor, in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities, issues, when the Imperial Diet is not sitting, Imperial ordinances in the place of law.

(2) Such Imperial Ordinances are to be laid before the Imperial Diet at its next session, and when the Diet does not approve the said Ordinances, the Government shall declare them to be invalid for the future.

Article 9. The Emperor issues or causes to be issued, the Ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance of the public peace and order, and for the promotion of the welfare of the subjects. But no Ordinance shall in any way alter any of the existing laws.

Article 10. The Emperor determines the organization of the different branches of the administration, and salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and dismisses the same. Exceptions especially provided for in the present Constitution or in other laws, shall be in accordance with the respective provisions (bearing thereon).

Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy.

Article 12. The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy.

Article 13. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.

Article 14. The Emperor declares a state of siege.

(2) The conditions and effects of a state of siege shall be determined by law.

Article 15. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor.

Article 16. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and rehabilitation.

Article 17. A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

(2) The Regent shall exercise the powers appertaining to the Emperor in His name.

II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF SUBJECTS

Article 18. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese subject shall be determined by law.

Article 19. Japanese subjects may, according to qualifications determined in laws or ordinances, be appointed to civil or military or any other public offices equally.

Article 20. Japanese subjects are amenable to service in the Army or Navy, according to the provisions of law.

Article 21. Japanese subjects are amenable to the duty of paying taxes, according to the provisions of law.

Article 22. Japanese subjects shall have the liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits of the law.

Article 23. No Japanese subject shall be arrested, detained, tried or punished, unless according to law.

Article 24. No Japanese subject shall be deprived of his right of being tried by the judges determined by law.

Article 25. Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent.

Article 26. Except in the cases mentioned in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate.

Article 27. The right of property of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate.

(2) Measures necessary to be taken for the public benefit shall be any provided for by law.

Article 28. Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to theirduties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief.

Article 29. Japanese subjects shall, within the limits of law, enjoy the liberty of speech, writing, publication, public meetings and associations.

Article 30. Japanese subjects may present petitions, by observing the proper forms of respect, and by complying with the rules specially provided for the same.

Article 31. The provisions contained in the present Chapter shall not affect the exercises of the powers appertaining to the Emperor, in times of war or in cases of a national emergency.

Article 32. Each and every one of the provisions contained in the preceding Articles of the present Chapter, that are not inconflict with the laws or the rules and discipline of the Army and Navy, shall apply to the officers and men of the Army and of the Navy.

III. THE IMPERIAL DIET

Article 33. The Imperial Diet shall consist of two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives.

Article 34. The House of Peers shall, in accordance with the ordinance concerning the House of Peers, be composed of the members of the Imperial Family, of the orders of nobility, and of those who have been nominated thereto by the Emperor.

Article 35. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members elected by the people, according to the provisions of the law of Election.

Article 36. No one can at one and the same time be a Member of both Houses.

Article 37. Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 38. Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law submitted to it by the Government, and may respectively initiate projects of law.

Article 39. A Bill, which has been rejected by either the one or the other of the two Houses, shall not be brought in again during the same session.

Article 40. Both Houses can make representations to the Government, as to laws or upon any other subject. When, however, such representations are not accepted, they cannot be made a second time during the same session.

Article 41. The Imperial Diet shall be convoked every year.

Article 42. A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three months. In case of necessity, the duration of a session may be prolonged by the Imperial Order.

Article 43. When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary session may be convoked in addition to the ordinary one.

(2) The duration of an extraordinary session shall be determined by Imperial Order.

Article 44. The opening, closing, prolongation of session and prorogation of the Imperial Diet, shall be effected simultaneously for both Houses.

(2) In case the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, the House of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued.

Article 45. When the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, Members shall be caused by Imperial Order to be newly elected, and the new House shall be convoked within five months from the day of dissolution.

Article 46. No debate can be opened and no vote can be taken in either House of the Imperial Diet, unless not less than one-third of the whole number of Members thereof is present.

Article 47. Votes shall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a tie vote, the President shall have the casting vote.

Article 48. The deliberations of both Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations may, however, upon demand of the Government or by resolution of the House, be held in secret sitting.

Article 49. Both Houses of the Imperial Diet may respectively present addresses to the Emperor.

Article 50. Both Houses may receive petitions presented by subjects.

Article 51. Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present Constitution and in the Law of the Houses, rules necessary for the management of their internal affairs.

Article 52. No Member of either House shall be held responsible outside the respective Houses, for any opinion uttered or for any vote given in the House. When, however, a Member himself has given publicity to his opinions by public speech, by documents in print or in writing, or by any other similar means, he shall, in the matter, be amenable to the general law.

Article 53. The Members of both Houses shall, during the session, be free from arrest, unless with the consent of the House, except in cases of flagrant delicts, or of offenses connected with a state of internal commotion or with a foreign trouble.

Article 54. The Ministers of State and the Delegates of the Government may, at any time, take seats and speak in either House.

IV. THE MINISTERS OF STATE AND THE PRIVY COUNCIL

Article 55. The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to the Emperor, and be responsible for it.

(2) All Laws, Imperial Ordinances, and Imperial Rescripts of whatever kind, that relate to the affairs of the state, require the countersignature of a Minister of State.

Article 56. The Privy Councillors shall, in accordance with the provisions for the organization of the Privy Council, deliberate upon important matters of State when they have been consulted by the Emperor.

V. THE JUDICATURE

Article 57. The Judicature shall be exercised by the Courts of Law according to law, in the name of the Emperor.

(2) The organization of the Courts of Law shall be determined by law.

Article 58. The judges shall be appointed from among those, who possess proper qualifications according to law.

(2) No judge shall be deprived of his position, unless by way of criminal sentence or disciplinary punishment.

(3) Rules for disciplinary punishment shall be determined by law.

Article 59. Trials and judgments of a Court shall be conducted publicly. When, however, there exists any fear, that such publicity may be prejudicial to peace and order, or to the maintenance of public morality, the public trial may be suspended by provisions of law or by the decision of the Court of Law.

Article 60. All matters that fall within the competency of a special Court, shall be specially provided for by law.

Article 61. No suit at law, which relates to rights alleged to have been infringed by the illegal measures of the administrative authorities, and which shall come within the competency of the Court of Administrative Litigation specially established by law, shall be taken cognizance of by Court of Law.

VI. FINANCE

Article 62. The imposition of a new tax or the modification of the rates (of an existing one) shall be determined by law.

(2) However, all such administrative fees or other revenue having the nature of compensation shall not fall within the category of the above clause.

(3) The raising of national loans and the contracting of other liabilities to the charge of the National Treasury, except those that are provided in the Budget, shall require the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 63. The taxes levied at present shall, in so far as they are not remodelled by a new law, be collected according to the old system.

Article 64. The expenditure and revenue of the State require the consent of the Imperial Diet by means of an annual Budget.

(2) Any and all expenditures overpassing the appropriations set forth in the Titles and Paragraphs of the Budget, or that are not provided for in the Budget, shall subsequently require the approbation of the Imperial Diet.

Article 65. The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Representatives.

Article 66. The expenditures of the Imperial House shall be defrayed every year out of the National Treasury, according to the present fixed amount for the same, and shall not require the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except in case an increase thereof is found necessary.

Article 67. Those already fixed expenditures based by the Constitution upon the powers appertaining to the Emperor, and such expenditures as may have arisen by the effect of law, or that appertain to the legal obligations of the Government, shall be neither rejected nor reduced by the Imperial Diet, without the concurrence of the Government.

Article 68. In order to meet special requirements, the Government may ask the consent of the Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a Continuing Expenditure Fund, for a previously fixed number of years.

Article 69. In order to supply deficiencies, which are unavoidable, in the Budget, and to meet requirements unprovided for in the same, a Reserve Fund shall be provided in the Budget.

Article 70. When the Imperial Diet cannot be convoked, owing to the external or internal condition of the country, in case of urgent need for the maintenance of public safety, the Government may take all necessary financial measures, by means of an Imperial Ordinance.

(2) In the case mentioned in the preceding clause, the matter shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet at its next session, and its approbation shall be obtained thereto.

Article 71. When the Imperial Diet has not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget has not been brought into actual existence, the Government shall carry out the Budget of the preceding year.

Article 72. The final account of the expenditures and revenues of the State shall be verified and confirmed by the Board of Audit, and it shall be submitted by the Government to the Imperial Diet, together with the report of verification of the said board.

(2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall of determined by law separately.

VII. SUPPLEMENTARY RULES

Article 73. When it has become necessary in future to amend the provisions of the present Constitution, a project to the effect shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet by Imperial Order.

(2) In the above case, neither House can open the debate, unless not less than two-thirds of the whole number of Members are present, and no amendment can be passed, unless a majority of not less than two-thirds of the Members present is obtained.

Article 74. No modification of the Imperial House Law shall be required to be submitted to the deliberation of the Imperial Diet.

(2) No provision of the present Constitution can be modified by the Imperial House Law.

Article 75. No modification can be introduced into the Constitution, or into the Imperial House Law, during the time of a Regency.

Article 76. Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations, Ordinances, or by whatever names they may be called, shall, so far as they do not conflict with the present Constitution, continue in force.

(2) All existing contracts or orders, that entail obligations upon the Government, and that are connected with expenditure, shall come within the scope of Article 67.

Constitution of 1946

Japan is a constitutional monarchy. The current constitution was largely written by the Occupation authorities in 1945--1946. It replaced Japan's original constitution, which many people feel had flaws that made it unsuitable for a modern democracy. The original constitution was promulgated in 1889 (see page X.

THE CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN, 1946

Promulgated on November 3, 1946; Put into effect on May 3, 1947.

We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all constitutions, laws, ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith.

We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship, and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want.

We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations.

We, the Japanese people, pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources.

I. THE EMPEROR

Article 1. The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.

Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial House law passed by the Diet.

Article 3. The advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, and the Cabinet shall be responsible therefor.

Article 4. The Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in this Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government.

(2) The Emperor may delegate the performance of his acts in matters of state as may be provided by law.

Article 5. When, in accordance with the Imperial House law, a Regency is established, the Regent shall perform his acts in matter of state in the Emperor's name. In this case, paragraph one of the article will be applicable.

Article 6. The Emperor shall appoint the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet.

(2) The Emperor shall appoint the Chief Judge of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet.

Article 7. The Emperor, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, shall perform the following acts in makers of state on behalf of the people:

(i) Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties;

(ii) Convocation of the Diet;

(iii)Dissolution of the House of Representatives;

(iv) Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet;

(v) Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers;

(vi) Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights;

(vii)Awarding of honors;

(viii) Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law;

(ix) Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers;

(x) Performance of ceremonial functions.

Article 8. No property can be given to, or received by, the Imperial House, nor can any gifts be made therefrom, without the authorization of the Diet.

II. RENUNCIATION OF WAR

Article 9. Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a mean of settling international disputes.

(2) In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized.

CHAPTER III. RIGHTS ANO DUTIES OF THE PEOPLE

Article 10. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese national shall be determined by law.

Article 11. The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights.

Article 12. The freedoms and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare.

Article 13. All of the people shall be respected as individuals. Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs.

Article 14. All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin.

(2) Peers and peerage shall not be recognized.

(3) No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction, nor shall any such award be valid beyond the lifetime of the individual who now holds or hereafter may receive it.

Article 15. The people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them.

(2) All public officials are servants of the whole community and not of any group thereof.

(3) Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the election of public officials.

(4) In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated. A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for the choice he has made.

Article 16. Every person shall have the right of peaceful petition for the redress of damage, for the removal of public officials, for the enactment, repeal or amendment of law, ordinances or regulations and for other matters, nor shall any person be in any way discriminated against sponsoring such a petition.

Article 17. Every person may sue for redress as provided by law from the State or a public entity, in case he has suffered damage through illegal act of any public official.

Article 18. No person shall be held in bondage of any kind. Involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, is prohibited

Article 19. Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated.

Article 20. Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State nor exercise any political authority.

(2) No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious acts, celebration, rite or practice.

(3) The state and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any other religious activity.

Article 21. Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed.

(2) No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated.

Article 22. Every person shall have freedom to choose and change his residence and to choose his occupation to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare.

(2) Freedom of all persons to move to a foreign country and to divest themselves of their nationality shall be inviolate.

Article 23. Academic freedom is guaranteed.

Article 24. Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis.

(2) With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes.

Article 25. All people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living.

(2) In all spheres of life, the State shall use its endeavors for the promotion and extension of social welfare and security, and of public health.

Article 26. All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their ability, as provided by law.

(2) All people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary educations as provided for by law. Such compulsory education shall be free.

Article 27. All people shall have the right and the obligation to work.

(2) Standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law.

(3) Children shall not be exploited.

Article 28. The right of workers to organize and to bargain and act collectively is guaranteed.

Article 29. The right to own or to hold property is inviolable.

(2) Property rights shall be defined by law, in conformity with the public welfare.

(3) Private property may be taken for public use upon just compensation therefor.

Article 30. The people shall be liable to taxations as provided by law.

Article 31. No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any other criminal penalty be imposed, except according to procedure established by law.

Article 32. No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts.

Article 33. No person shall be apprehended except upon warrant issued by a competent judicial officer which specifies the offense with which the person is charged, unless he is apprehended, the offense being committed.

Article 34. No person shall be arrested or detained without being at once informed of the charges against him or without the immediate privilege of counsel; nor shall he be detained without adequate cause; and upon demand of any person such cause must be immediately shown in open court in his presence and the presence of his counsel.

Article 35. The right of all persons to be secure in their homes, papers and effects against entries, searches and seizures shall not be impaired except upon warrant issued for adequate cause and particularly describing the place to be searched and things to be seized, or except as provided by Article 33.

(2) Each search or seizure shall be made upon separate warrant Issued by a competent judicial officer.

Article 36. The infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel punishments are absolutely forbidden.

Article 39. In all criminal cases the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial tribunal.

(2) He shall be permitted full opportunity to examine all witnesses, and he shall have the right of compulsory process for obtaining witnesses on his behalf at public expense.

(3) At all times the accused shall have the assistance of competent counsel who shall, if the accused is unable to secure the same by his own efforts, be assigned to his use by the State.

Article 38. No person shall be compelled to testify against himself.

(2) Confession made under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged arrest or detention shall not be admitted in evidence.

(3) No person shall be convicted or punished in cases where the only proof against him is his own confession.

Article 39. No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he has been acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy.

Article 40. Any person, in case he is acquitted after he has been arrested or detained, may sue the State for redress as provided by law.

IV. THE DIET

Article 41. The Diet shall be the highest organ of state power, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State.

Article 42. The Diet shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors.

Article 43. Both Houses shall consist of elected members, representative of all the people.

(2) The number of the members of each House shall be fixed by law.

Article 44. The qualifications of members of both Houses and their electors shall be fixed by law. However, there shall be no discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income.

Article 45. The term of office of members of the House of Representatives shall be four years. However, the term shall be terminated before the full term is up in case the House of Representatives is dissolved.

Article 46. The term of office of members of the House of Councillors shall be six years, and election for half the members shall take place every three years.

Article 47. Electoral districts, method of voting and other matters pertaining to the method of election of members of both Houses shall be fixed by law.

Article 48. No person shall be permitted to be a member of both Houses simultaneously.

Article 49. Members of both Houses shall receive appropriate annual payment from the national treasury in accordance with law.

Article 50. Except in cases provided by law, members of both Houses shall be exempt from apprehension while the Diet is in session, and any members apprehended before the opening of the session shall be freed during the term of the session upon demand of the House.

Article 51. Members of both Houses shall not be held liable outside the House for speeches, debates or votes cast inside the House.

Article 52. An ordinary session of the Diet shall be convoked once per year.

Article 53. The Cabinet may determine to convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet. When a quarter or more of the total members of either house makes the demand, the Cabinet must determine on such convocation.

Article 54. When the House of Representatives is dissolved, there must be a general election of members of the House of Representatives within forty (40) days from the date of dissolution, and the Diet must be convoked within thirty (30) days from the date of the election.

(2) When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the House of Councillors is closed at the same time. However, the Cabinet may in time of national emergency convoke the House of Councillors in emergency session.

(3) Measures taken at such session as mentioned in the proviso of the preceding paragraph shall be provisional and shall become null and void unless agreed to by the House of Representatives within a period of ten (10) days after the opening of the next session of the Diet.

Article 55. Each House shall judge disputes related to qualifications of its members. However, in order to deny a seat to any member, it is necessary to pass a resolution by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.

Article 56. Business cannot be transacted in either House unless one third or more of total membership is present.

(2) All matters shall be decided, in each House, by a majority of those present, except as elsewhere provided in the Constitution, and in case of a tie, the presiding officer shall decide the issue.

Article 57. Deliberation in each House shall be public. However, a secret meeting may be held where a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor.

(2) Each House shall keep a record of proceedings. This record shall be published and given general circulation, excepting such parts of proceedings of secret session as may be deemed to require secrecy.

(3) Upon demand of one-fifth or more of the members present, votes of the members on any matter shall be recorded in the minutes.

Article 58. Each house shall select its own president and other officials.

(2) Each House shall establish its rules pertaining to meetings, proceedings and internal discipline, and may punish members for disorderly conduct. However, in order to expel a member, a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present must pass a resolution thereon.

Article 59. A bill becomes a law on passage by both Houses, except as otherwise provided by the Constitution.

(2) A bill which is passed by the House of Representatives, and upon which the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, becomes a law when passed a second time by the House of Representatives by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.

(3) The provision of the preceding paragraph does not preclude the House of Representatives from calling for the meeting of a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law.

(4) Failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within sixty (60) days after receipt of a bill passed by the House of Representatives, time in recess excepted, may be determined by the House of Representatives to constitute a rejection of the said bill by the House of Councillors.

Article 60. The Budget must first be submitted to the House of Representatives.

(2) Upon consideration of the budget, when the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, and when no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or in the case of failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within thirty (30) days, the period of recess excluded, after the receipt of the budget passed by the House of Representatives, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.

Article 61. The second paragraph of the preceding article applies also to the Diet approval required for the conclusion of treaties.

Article 62. Each House may conduct investigations in relation to government, and may demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records.

Article 63. The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State may, at any time, appear in either House for the purpose of speaking on bills, regardless of whether they are members of the House or not. They must appear when their presence is required in order to give answers or explanations.

Article 64. The Diet shall set up an impeachment court from among the members of both Houses for the purpose of trying judges against whom removal proceedings have been instituted.

(2) Matters relating to impeachment shall be provided by law.

V. THE CABINET

Article 65. Executive power shall be vested in the Cabinet.

Article 66. The Cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister, who shall be its head, and other Ministers of State, as provided for by law.

(2) The Prime Minister and other Minister of State must be civilians.

(3) The Cabinet, in the exercise of executive power, shall be collectively responsible to the Diet.

Article 67. The Prime Minister shall be designated from among the members of the Diet by a resolution of the Diet. This designation shall precede all other business.

(2) If the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors disagrees and if no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or the House of Councillors fails to make designation within ten (10) days, exclusive of the period of recess, after the House of Representatives has made designation, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.

Article 68. The Prime Minister shall appoint the Ministers of State. However, a majority of their number must be chosen from among the members of the Diet.

(2) The Prime Minister may remove the Ministers of State as he chooses.

Article 69. If the House of Representatives passes a non-confidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall resign en masse, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved with ten (10) days.

Article 70. When there is a vacancy in the post of Prime Minister, or upon the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of members of the House of Representatives, the Cabinet shall resign en masse.

Article 71. In the cases mentioned in the two preceding articles, the Cabinet shall continue its functions until the time when a new Prime Minister is appointed.

Article 72. The Prime Minister, representing the Cabinet, submits bills, reports on general national affairs and foreign relations to the Diet and exercises control and supervision over various administrative branches.

Article 73. The Cabinet, in addition to other general administrative functions, shall perform the following functions:

(i) Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state;

(ii) Manage foreign affairs;

(iii)Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or, depending on circumstances, subsequent approval of the Diet;

(iv) Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law;

(v) Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet;

(vi) Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law.

(vii)Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

Article 74. All laws and cabinet orders shall be signed by the competent Minister of state and countersigned by the Prime Minister.

Article 75. The Ministers of state, during their tenure of office, shall not be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister. However, the right to take that action is not impaired hereby.

VI. JUDICIARY

Article 76. The whole judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as are established by law.

(2) No extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power.

(3) All judges shall be independent in the exercise of their conscience and shall be bound only by this Constitution and the laws.

Article 77. The Supreme Court is vested with the rule-making power under which it determines the rules of procedure and of practice, and of matters relating to attorneys, the internal discipline of the courts and the administration of judicial affairs.

(2) Public procurators shall be subject to the rule-making power of the Supreme Court.

(3) The Supreme Court may delegate the power to make rules for inferior courts to such courts.

Article 78. Judges shall not be removed except by public impeachment unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform official duties. No disciplinary action against judges shall be administered by any executive organ or agency.

Article 79. The Supreme Court shall consist of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be determined by law; all such judges excepting the Chief Judge shall be appointed by the Cabinet.

(2) The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall be reviewed by the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their appointment, and shall be reviewed again at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives after a lapse of ten (10) years, and in the same manner thereafter.

(3) In cases mentioned in the foregoing paragraph, when the majority of the voters favors the dismissal of a judge, he shall be dismissed.

(4) Matters pertaining to review shall be prescribed by law.

(5) The judges of the Supreme Court shall of retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.

(6) All such judges shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office.

Article 80. The judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court. All such judges shall hold office for a term of ten (10) years with privilege of reappointment, provided that they shall be retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.

(2) The judges of the inferior courts shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office.

Article 81. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act.

Article 82. Trials shall be conducted and judgment declared publicly.

(2) Where a court unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals, a trial may be conducted privately, but trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press or cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed in Chapter III of this Constitution are in question shall always be conducted publicly.

VII. FINANCE

Article 83. The power to administer national finances shall be exercised as the Diet shall determine.

Article 84. No new taxes shall be imposed or existing ones modified except by law or under such conditions as law may prescribe.

Article 85. No money shall be expended, nor shall the State obligate itself, except as authorized by the Diet.

Article 86. Cabinet shall prepare and submit to the Diet for its consideration and decision a budget for each fiscal year.

Article 87. In order to provide for unforeseen deficiencies in the budget, a reserve fund may be authorized by the Diet to be expended upon the responsibility of the Cabinet.

(2) The Cabinet must get subsequent approval of the Diet for all payments from the reserve fund.

Article 88. All property of the Imperial Household shall belong to the State. All expenses of the Imperial Household shall be appropriated by the Diet in the budget.

Article 89. No public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for the use, benefit or maintenance of any religious institution or association or for any charitable, educational benevolent enterprises not under the control of public authority.

Article 90. Final accounts of the expenditures and revenues of State shall be audited annually by a Board of Audit and submitted by the Cabinet to the Diet, together with the statement of audit, during the fiscal year immediately following the period covered.

(2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall determined by law.

Article 91. At regular intervals and at least annually the Cabinet shall report to the Diet and the people on the state of national finances.

VIII. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

Article 92. Regulations concerning organization and operations of local public entities shall be fixed by law in accordance with the principle of local autonomy.

Article 93. The local public entities shall establish assemblies as their deliberative organs, in accordance with law.

(2) The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the members of their assemblies, and such other local officials as may be determined by law shall be elected by direct popular vote within their several communities.

Article 94. Local entities shall have the right to manage their property, affairs and administration and to enact their own regulations within law.

Article 95. A special law, applicable to one local public entity, cannot be enacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of the voters of the local public entity concerned, obtained in accordance with law.

IX. AMENDMENTS

Article 96. Amendment to this Constitution shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify.

(2) Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an integral part of this Constitution.

X. SUPREME LAW

Article 97. The fundamental human rights by this Constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate.

Article 98. This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the nation and no law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government, or part thereof, contrary to the provisions hereof, shall have legal force or validity.

(2) The treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed.

Article 99. The Emperor or the Regent as well as Ministers of State, members of the Diet, judges, and all other public officials have the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution.

XI. SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS

Article 100. This Constitution shall be enforced as from the day when the period of six months will have elapsed counting from the day of its promulgation.

(2) The enactment of laws necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution the election of members of the House of Councillors and the procedure for the convocation of the Diet and other preparatory procedures for the enforcement of this Constitution may be executed before the day prescribed in the preceding paragraph.

Article 101. If the House of Councilors is not constituted before the effective date of this Constitution, the House of Representatives shall function as the Diet until such time as the House of Councilors shall be constituted.

Article 102. The term of office for half the members of the House of Councillors serving in the first term under this Constitution shall be three years. Members falling under this category shall be determined in accordance with law.

Article 103. The Ministers of State, members of the House of Representatives, and judges in office on the effective date of this Constitution, and all other public officials, who occupy positions corresponding to such positions as are recognized by this Constitution shall not forfeit their positions automatically on account of the enforcement of this Constitution unless otherwise specified by law. When, however, successors are elected or appointed under the provisions of this Constitution, they shall forfeit their positions as a matter of course.

see also:

Constitution of 1889 (pg. X),

Cryptology

The combined science of making and breaking codes, ciphers, and other methods of secret communication (hereafter refered to generally as codes, unless otherwise stated). The science of making codes is called “cryptography” and that of breaking them is called “cryptanalysis”.

There is not much cryptological history in Japan - prior to the twentieth century, only a few simple codes were used and there seems to have been no practice of cryptanalysis at all.

There seems to be almost no cryptology in Japan before the Warring States Period (senkokujidai), during which Uesugi Kenshin and Oda Nobunaga are believed to have used simple substitution ciphers. In the context of world cryptological history, this is very late. Julius Caesar reportedly used a substition cipher and even before that the Spartans of Greek were using a transposition cipher with a wooden stick as the key. Thus people in the Mediterranean had used both major ciphers systems (transposition and substitution) over 1,500 years before Uesugi was born.

Little is known about what steps the Meiji government took to secure their communications. From the Taishō Period, however, there is more information. It is not until the Shōwa Period, that the Imperial Japanese Army decides to actively improve its cryptological abilities.

Superficially, they were successful. In reality, they were improving their abilities in the old-fashioned, pre-First World War, traditional cryptology. Unfortunately, the enemy they were fighting in China from the mid-1930s was also using traditional cryptological systems. This likely gave the Army the impression that their training was worthwhile. Unfortunately, the skills the Army honed in China would be of limited assistance in the Second World War, when Japan faced several enemies, all of whom were soon at the forefront of modern cryptology.

Japanese Cryptology From the 1500s to 1910s

Senkokujidai Daimyō

The cipher system that Uesugi used is basically a simple substitution usually known in English as a Polybius square or “checkerboard.” The i-ro-ha alphabet contains forty-eight letters, so a seven-by-seven square is used, with one of the cells left blank. The rows and columns are labeled with a number or a letter. In Table 8, the numbers start in the top left, as does the i-ro-ha alphabet. In practice these could start in any corner.

Table 8 i-ro-ha Alphabet, 1-7 Checkerboard Cipher

To encipher, find the plaintext letter in the square and replace it with the number of that row and column. So using the square above, kougeki becomes 55 43 53 63 or 55 34 35 36 if the correspondents decided ahead of time on column-row order. The problem of what to do in the case of letters such as “ga,” “de,” and “pe” that do not appear in the i-ro-ha alphabet is avoided by using the base form of the letter instead - as above where “kougeki” becomes “koukeki.''² Technically, this is a serious flaw because some messages may have two or more equally valid decipherments. To avoid this the encipherer may have had to rephrase messages.

This system of using a “checkerboard” to convert an alphabet into numbers or letters was described by Polybius over 2000 years ago. There are three main advantages to this system. First, converting letters into numbers allows for various mathematical transformations which are not possible or not as easy with letters - super-enciphering for example. Second, the checkerboard system reduces the total number of characters. Whether converting to numbers or letters, the Polybius square reduces 25 English letters³ to five characters. Uesugi's square reduces to seven. This reduction makes crytanalysis slightly more difficult than simple one-to-one substitution. Another benefit of the reduction in the number of letters is that it reduces the chance of error in communicating the message. The letters of the German ADGFX system in World War I were chosen because in morse code they are quite distinct and thus it was unlikely that an error in the morse code transmission would accidently turn one letter into another. This would have been important for a sengoku daimyō, for instance, if he experimented with sending coded messages over long distances by torches, flags, poles, or similar system.