An Encyclopedia of Japanese History

compiled by Chris Spackman





Copyright Notice



Copyright © 2002-2005 Chris Spackman and contributors

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with no Front-Cover Texts, and with no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License.”



Table of Contents

Frontmatter 9

Abe Family (Mikawa) – Azukizaka, Battle of (1564) 11

Baba Family – Buzen Province 41

Chang Tso-lin – Currency 51

Daido Masashige – Dutch Learning 95

Echigo Province – Etō Shinpei 98

Feminism – Fuwa Mitsuharu 102

Gamō Hideyuki – Gyoki 107

Habu Yoshiharu – Hyūga Province 116

Ibaraki Castle – Izu Province 138

Japan Communist Party – Jurakutei Castle 154

Kaei – Kyūshū Campaign 158

Lansing, Robert – Lytton 203

MacArthur, Douglas – Mutsu Province 203

Nabeyama Sadachika – Nunobeyama, Battle of 238

Ōan – Ozu Yasujiro 254

Pacific War – Privy Council 275

(Q: No Entries) 289

Ran – Ryūkyū Province 289

Sado Province – Suzuki Zenkō 294

Tachibana Muneshige – Twenty-One Demands 345

Uchida Ryohei – Uzen Province 372

(V: No entries) 375

Wado Province – Witte, Sergei 375

(X: No entries) 377

Yagyū Munenori – Yūryaku-tennō 377

Zaibatsu – Zeami 386

Chronological List of Emperors 389

Prime Ministers, 1885 to Present 395

Alphabetical List of the Prefectures 399

Provinces and Corresponding Prefectures 402

Chronological List of Nengō 406

List of the Shōgun 415

GNU Free Documentation License 417



List of Tables

Table 1Cabinet Positions Held by Abe Nobuyuki 12

Table 2Abe Nobuyuki's Cabinet 13

Table 3Cabinet Positions Held by Adachi Kenzō 15

Table 4Data on Akita Prefecture 19

Table 5Cabinet Positions Held by Araki Sadao 28

Table 6Cabinet Positions Held by Ashida Hitoshi 31

Table 7Ashida Hitoshi's Cabinet 32

Table 8 i-ro-ha Alphabet, 1-7 Checkerboard Cipher 81

Table 9 Checkerboard Cipher Using Waka Poem 82

Table 10Creating a Pseudo-Random Number from Two Other Numbers 92

Table 11 Portraits on Japanese Bills 94

Table 12 Dates of Use for Japanese Bills 95

Table 13 Cabinet Positions Held by Gotō Shinpei 114

Table 14 Cabinet Positions Held by Gotō Shōjirō 115

Table 15 Cabinet Positions Held by Hamaguchi Osachi 117

Table 16 Hamaguchi Osachi's Cabinet 118

Table 17 Cabinet Positions Held by Hara Kei 119

Table 18 Hara Kei's Cabinet 120

Table 19 Cabinet Positions Held by Hatoyama Ichirō 121

Table 20 Cabinet Positions Held by Hayashi Senjūrō 122

Table 21 Hayashi Senjūrō's Cabinet 122

Table 22 Cabinet Positions Held by Hayashi Tadasu 123

Table 23 Cabinet Positions Held by Hiranuma Kiichirō 127

Table 24Hiranuma Kiichirō's Cabinet 128

Table 25 Cabinet Positions Held by Hirota Kōki 129

Table 26 Hirota Kōki's Cabinet 130

Table 27 Cabinet Positions Held by Inoue Junnosuke 142

Table 28 Cabinet Positions Held by Inoue Kaoru 143

Table 29 Cabinet Positions Held by Inoue Kowashi 143

Table 30 Cabinet Positions Held by Inukai Tsuyoshi 144

Table 31 Inukai Tsuyoshi's Cabinet 144

Table 32Domains in Ise Province 145

Table 33 Cabinet Positions Held by Itagaki Taisuke 147

Table 34 Cabinet Positions Held by Itō Hirobumi 148

Table 35 Itō Hirobumi's First Cabinet 148

Table 36 Itō Hirobumi's Second Cabinet 151

Table 37 Itō Hirobumi's Third Cabinet 151

Table 38Itō Hirobumi's Fourth Cabinet 152

Table 39Cabinet Positions Held by Katō Takaaki 169

Table 40 Katō Takaaki's First Cabinet 169

Table 41Katō Takaaki's Second Cabinet 170

Table 42 Cabinet Positions Held by Katō Tomosaburō 170

Table 43 Katō Tomosaburō's Cabinet 171

Table 44Cabinet Positions Held by Katsura Tarō 172

Table 45 Katsura Tarō's First Cabinet 173

Table 46Katsura Tarō's Second Cabinet 173

Table 47Katsura Tarō's Third Cabinet 174

Table 48 Cabinet Positions Held by Kido Kōichi 177

Table 49Cabinet Positions Held by Kobiyama Naoto 181

Table 50Cabinet Positions Held by Kodama Gentarō 181

Table 51Cabinet Positions Held by Kodama Hideo 182

Table 52Cabinet Positions Held by Koiso Kuniaki 184

Table 53Koiso Kuniaki's Cabinet 185

Table 54Kōke Families 186

Table 55Cabinet Positions Held by Kōno Togama 188

Table 56Cabinet Positions Held by Komura Jūtarō 188

Table 57Cabinet Positions Held by Konoe Fumimaro 189

Table 58Konoe Fumimaro's First Cabinet 190

Table 59Konoe Fumimaro's Second Cabinet 191

Table 60Konoe Fumimaro's Third Cabinet 192

Table 61Cabinet Positions Held by Kuroda Kiyotaka 198

Table 62Kuroda Kiyotaka's Cabinet 198

Table 63Filmography of Kurosawa Akira 201

Table 64Cabinet Positions Held by Kurusu Takeo 201

Table 65Cabinet Positions Held by Machida Chūji 203

Table 66Cabinet Positions Held by Maeda Yonezō 205

Table 67Cabinet Positions Held by Makino Nobuaki 205

Table 68Cabinet Positions Held by Matsuda Masahisa 206

Table 69Cabinet Positions Held by Matsukata Masayoshi 207

Table 70Matsukata Masayoshi's First Cabinet 208

Table 71Matsukata Masayoshi's Second Cabinet 209

Table 72Cabinet Positions Held by Matsumoto Jōji 210

Table 73Cabinet Positions Held by Matsumura Kenzō 210

Table 74 Leaders of the Meiji Restoration 213

Table 75Filmography of Mifune Toshirō 215

Table 76Cabinet Positions Held by Minami Hiroshi 217

Table 77Cabinet Positions Held by Mitsuchi Chūzō 225

Table 78Cabinet Positions Held by Mizuno Rentarō 229

Table 79Cabinet Positions Held by Mochizuke Keisuke 229

Table 80Cabinet Positions Held by Motoda Hajime 232

Table 81Cabinet Positions Held by Murase Naokai 233

Table 82Cabinet Positions Held by Murata Shōzō 233

Table 83Cabinet Positions Held by Mutsu Munemitsu 237

Table 84Cabinet Positions Held by Nagai Ryūtarō 238

Table 85Cabinet Positions Held by Nakahashi Tokugorō 247

Table 86Cabinet Positions Held by Nakajima Chikuhei 247

Table 87Cabinet Positions Held by Narahashi Wataru 248

Table 88Cabinet Positions Held by Nishio Suehiro 252

Table 89Cabinet Positions Held by Noda Uichi 253

Table 90Cabinet Positions Held by Noda Utarō 253

Table 91Cabinet Positions Held by Ogata Taketora 260

Table 92Cabinet Positions Held by Ohara Naoshi 260

Table 93Cabinet Positions Held by Okada Keisuke 262

Table 94Okada Keisuke's Cabinet 262

Table 95Cabinet Positions Held by Okada Ryōhei 263

Table 96Cabinet Positions Held by Okano Keijirō 263

Table 97Cabinet Positions Held by Ōki Enkichi 264

Table 98Cabinet Positions Held by Ōki Takatō 265

Table 99Cabinet Positions Held by Okuda Yoshindo 266

Table 100Cabinet Positions Held by Ōkuma Shigenobu 266

Table 101Ōkuma Shigenobu's First Cabinet 267

Table 102Ōkuma Shigenobu's Second Cabinet 267

Table 103Cabinet Positions Held by Ōura Kanetake 272

Table 104Cabinet Positions Held by Ōyama Iwao 272

Table 105 Notable Hired Foreigners 274

Table 106Cabinet Positions Held by Saigō Tsugumichi 296

Table 107Cabinet Positions Held by Saionji Kinmochi 297

Table 108Saionji Kinmochi's First Cabinet 298

Table 109Saionji Kinmochi's Second Cabinet 299

Table 110Cabinet Positions Held by Saitō Makoto 299

Table 111Saitō Makoto's Cabinet 300

Table 112Cabinet Positions Held by Saitō Takao 301

Table 113Cabinet Positions Held by Sakurauchi Yukio 302

Table 114Cabinet Positions Held by Sasamori Junzō 305

Table 115Cabinet Positions Held by Satō Eisaku 305

Table 116Satō Eisaku's First Cabinet 305

Table 117Satō Eisaku's Second Cabinet 305

Table 118East and West Armies at Sekigahara 308

Table 119Cabinet Positions Held by Sengoku Mitsugu 309

Table 120Cabinet Positions Held by Shibata Kamon 310

Table 121Cabinet Positions Held by Shidehara Kijūrō 311

Table 122Shidehara Kijūrō's Cabinet 312

Table 123Cabinet Positions Held by Shigemitsu Mamoru 313

Table 124Cabinet Positions Held by Shimada Toshio 315

Table 125Cabinet Positions Held by Shiono Suehiko 317

Table 126Shōgunates 319

Table 127Cabinet Positions Held by Sone Arasuke 340

Table 128Cabinet Positions Held by Suematsu Kenchō 341

Table 129Cabinet Positions Held by Sugiyama Gen 342

Table 130Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Kantarō 343

Table 131Suzuki Kantarō's Cabinet 344

Table 132Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Kisaburō 344

Table 133Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Teiichi 345

Table 134Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Yoshio 345

Table 135Cabinet Positions Held by Takahashi Korekiyo 347

Table 136Takahashi Korekiyo's Cabinet 347

Table 137Cabinet Positions Held by Takarabe Takeshi 349

Table 138Cabinet Positions Held by Takashima Tomonosuke 349

Table 139Cabinet Positions Held by Takeda Giichi 350

Table 140Cabinet Positions Held by Taketomi Tokitoshi 352

Table 141Cabinet Positions Held by Tanabe Harumichi 353

Table 142Cabinet Positions Held by Tanaka Giichi 353

Table 143Tanaka Giichi's Cabinet 354

Table 144Cabinet Positions Held by Terauchi Masatake 359

Table 145Terauchi Masatake's Cabinet 359

Table 146Yonai Mitsumasa's Cabinet 385

Table 147Cabinet Positions Held by Yoshida Zengo 386

Table 148Chronological List of Emperors 393

Table 149Emperors of the Northern Court 393

Table 150Prime Ministers, 1885 to Present 398

Table 151Alphabetical List of the Prefectures 401

Table 152Provinces and Corresponding Prefectures 405

Table 153Chronological List of Nengō 413

Table 154 List of Nengō of the Northern Court 414

Table 155List of the Kamakura Shōgun 415

Table 156List of the Ashikaga Shōgun 415

Table 157List of the Tokugawa Shōgun 416







Frontmatter

Credits

The following people have contributed to this encyclopedia:

Carl F. Kelley

Seige of Kozuki entry

W. G. Sheftall (sheftall at ia.inf.shizuoka.ac.jp)

Imperial Way Faction entry

February 26th Revolt entry

Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org)

Several pages are included (and possibly modified) from the content available at www.wikipedia.org. These include but are not limited to:

Kofun, Kotoamatsukami, Meiji, Nagasaki, Bombing of, Nagasaki City, Sengoku Period,

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Tokugawa Ieyasu, Nengo, the Nengo appendix,

History

This encyclopedia started as a web site back in 1998. As I added more and more pages, the limitations of html for a large project began to show, so in late 2000 I switched everything over to LaTeX. With the 0.3.3 release, the format has again changed – this time to the OpenOffice.org XML-based format.

This work was originally published under the Open Content License but I republished it under the GNU Free Documentation License in March 2001. Please see the copyright section and the GNU License at the back of the book for more details.

About

Please direct questions, bug reports (factual mistakes in the text, for example), or suggestions concerning this work to Chris Spackman (spackman@openhistory.org). The newest version will always be available at www.openhistory.org.

This encyclopedia is continually under development and anyone is welcome to contribute.

Note on Dates (Important! Please READ THIS!!)

Some of the sources from which this encyclopedia is compiled are Japanese and use Japanese dates for events. Unfortunately, the Japanese used a less-than-perfect lunar calendar until the 1870s. As a result, the dates listed for events from more than about 130 years ago can seem misleading when compared with dates for the same event from an American or other `Western' source. So, for example, Bryant (and probably everyone else in America) lists the Battle of Sekigahara as taking place in October while Japanese sources say that it took place in September. In time I hope to have both dates listed, but that is not going to happen soon.

As a convenience, I have converted phrases like “fifth day of the second month” to “5 February''.

Sources

Currently, I have compiled this encyclopedia mostly from:

Janet Hunter's Encyclopedia of Modern History [hunter_1984] for people and events from modern history.

Stephen Turnbull's Samurai Sourcebook [turnbull_1998] for the Sengoku Period and samurai in general.

The Samurai Archives homepage at: http://www.angelfire.com/realm/kitsuno01/index.html A great site with lots of information about samurai and the Sengoku Period.

E. Papinot's Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan [papinot_1972] is a bit dated but has wonderfully detailed information on topics that tend to get ignored these days.

Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org : the online, free (as in speech) encyclopedia.

Most if not all of the data for prefecture entries is from Noritaka Yagasaki's Japan: Geographical Perspectives on an Island Nation [yagasaki_1997].

There are several very helpful tables at the back of New Nelson's Kanji Encyclopedia, which I have used to double and triple check a lot of the data about nengo and emperors.

This is not a comprehensive list.

Changes

0.3.3 to 0.3.4
Changed:

Hōgen (added Japanese), Chronological List of Nengō (added Japanese), Yonai Mitsumasa (added cabinet), Hayashi Yūzō(fixed name, added cabinet info), fixed some entries that were out of alphabetical order, fixed some errors in the chart of prefectures. Added and modified the Ishida Mitsunari, Miyamoto Musashi, and the Kurosawa Akira entries from wikipedia. Added some material from the Wikipedia article on Sekigahara, Battle of, added and modified slightly the entry on the Shimabara Rebellion from wikipedia. Added some Wikipedia info for Minamoto Yoriie, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Ashikaga Shōgunate, Nagato Province, Kagoshima City, Perry, Matthew Calbraith, Minamoto Yoshitsune, Oda Nobunaga, Sanada Nobuyuki, Sanada Masayuki, Sanada Yukimura, Satsuma Province, Sengoku Period, Sonnō-Jōi, dropped the “no” from the entry names for Fujiwara Kaneie and Fujiwara Michinaga to make them more consistent with the rest of the Fujiwaras. Added some stuff from wikipedia to: Ankan-tennō, Ashigaru, Azukizaka, Battle of (1564), Bakamatsu.

New:

Hōgen Insurrection, Fujiwara Yorinaga, Yoshida Zengo, everything alphabetically from Kimmei-tennō to Kizugawa, Battle of was accidently dropped from 0.3.3 and has been reinserted. Added Jōō (1222). Added Muromachi Period, Azuchi-Momoyama Period, Boshin War, Ran, Yagyū Munenori, Takuan, (from Wikipedia),

Added Kagoshima City, Kumamoto City, Nara City, Toyama City, Bunchū (main entry and entry in Chronological List of Nengō). Added entries for people who touch on Miyamoto Musashi, including Sasaki Ganryū, Yoshikawa Eiji, Mifune Toshirō, also Heian Period, Kamakura Period, Meiji Restoration, Comfort Women, Recreation and Amusement Association, (all based on the articles at Wikipedia). Sankin-Kōtai, Abolition of the Domain, Muromachi Period, Sakai Tadamasa, Comfort Women, Recreation and Amusement Association, added a table of emperors of the Northern Court. Added entries for those emperors.

Takamine Jokichi, Oyatoi Gaikokujin, Pacific War, Peace Preservation Law, Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), (all wikipedia)

Abe Family (Mikawa) – Azukizaka, Battle of (1564)

Abe Family (Mikawa)

Descended from Ōhiko (pg 260), a son of Kōgen-tennō (pg 184).

Abe Masakatsu Abe Masatsugu

Abe Family (Mutsu)

Abe Family (Suruga)

Abe Hirafu

Abe Hirafu was a governor of Koshi. He fought against the aboriginal inhabitants of Japan (called, at that time, ebisu, which basically just means 'barbarian'). This was in 658. Three years later, in 661, he led an expedition into Korea to help Kudara, a Japanese colony / protectorate / ally on the Korean peninsula.

Note that the early dates on this info means that everything is suspect (more than usual) and should be double and triple checked.

Abe Hirafu might be the anscestor of one or more of the Abe clans, as well as the Ando and Akita clans.

Abe Iso

Lived 1865 to 1949

Christian Socialist from Fukuoka Prefecture. Studied at Doshisha University and abroad. Became a Unitarian preacher. Taught at Tokyo College from 1899.

Active in the socialist movement.

1900 --- became president of the Socialist Society

1901 --- one of the founders of Shakaiminshuto

1924 --- became president of the Japan Fabian Society

1928 --- elected to the Diet

1932 --- chairman of Shakaitaishuto

Withdrew from politics in 1940

Abekawa River

A river which starts in Suruga and whose mouth is near Shizuoka.

Abe Masakatsu

Lived 1541 to 1600

Masakatsu was an important member of the Abe clan of Mikawa. He served Tokugawa Ieyasu until his (Masakatsu's) death in 1600 (just coincidence, or did he die at Sekigahara?). In 1590, Ieyasu gave him Ichihara (in Izu), worth 5,000 koku.

Abe Masatsugu

Lived 1569 to 1647

Abe Masatsugu was the eldest son of Masakatsu. After Sekigahara, Tokugawa Ieyasu promoted him to daimyō status.

Abe Muneto

Abe Nakamaro

Lived 701 to 770

Abe Nobuyuki

Lived 1875 to 1953

Soldier and Politician from Ishikawa Prefecture. Put on reserve list with rank of general in 1936.

Prime Minister from 30 Aug. 1939. Took over from Hiranuma Kiichirō (pg. 127) and was replaced by Yonai Mitsumasa (pg. 384) in January of 1940.

Joined the House of Peers in 1942.

President of the Imperial Rule Assistance Political Association (pg. 141).

Governor of Korea from July 1944.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hamaguchi

Hanretsu

Jun 16, 1930

Dec 10, 1930

Hamaguchi

War

Jun 16, 1930

Dec 10, 1930

Abe

Foreign Affairs

Aug 30, 1939

??

Abe

Prime Minister

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Table 1Cabinet Positions Held by Abe Nobuyuki

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Godō Takuo

Agriculture & Forestry

Aug 30, 1939

Oct 16, 1939

Sakai Tadamasa

Agriculture & Forestry

Oct 16, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Endō Ryūsaku

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Karasawa Toshiki

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Kanemitsu Tsuneo

Colonization

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Godō Takuo

Commerce & Industry

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Nagai Ryūtarō

Communications

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Kawarada Kakichi

Education

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Aoki Kazuo

Finance

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Abe Nobuyuki

Foreign Affairs

Aug 30, 1939

XXX

Nomura Kichisaburō

Foreign Affairs

XXX

Jan 16, 1940

Ohara Naoshi

Home Affairs

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Miyagi Chōgorō

Justice

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Yoshida Zengo

Navy

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Abe Nobuyuki

Prime Minister

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Nagai Ryūtarō

Railways

Aug 30, 1939

Nov 29, 1939

Nagata Hidejirō

Railways

Nov 29, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Hata Shunroku

War

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Ohara Naoshi

Welfare

Aug 30, 1939

Nov 29, 1939

Akita Kiyoshi

Welfare

Nov 29, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Table 2Abe Nobuyuki's Cabinet

Abeno Plain

A plain in Settsu. Abeno was the scene of several battles during the Warring States period.

Abe Sadato

Lived 1019 to 1062

Abe Seimei

Died 1005.

Abe Seimei was a famous astronomer.

Abe Yoritoki

Abolition of the Domain

Japanese: 廃藩置県, (Haihan-chiken)

Starting in July of 1871, the system of independent han (feudal domains) was abolished and a new system of semi-independent regional governments was introduced.

In an attempt to wipe out feudalism in Japan, the new Meiji government abolished hundreds of feudal domains or han. In their place it established a new local government scheme based on geographically defined prefectures. This system is still in effect today, although the number and boundaries of the prefectures has changed over time.

The han were ruled by the daimyō. While theoretically owing allegiance to both the Shōgun and the Emperor, the daimyō were for the most part independent in their han. However, over the years of since the establishment of the Tokugawa Shōgunate, most domain had run up serious debts (due in part to the construction and sankin kotai demands of the Tokugawa rulers) and this one carrot the new Meiji leaders used to entice the daimyō to willing “return” their domains to the Emperor. In exchange for recognising the Emperor's legal control of their land, the central government would take on the domain's debt and would often appoint the ex-daimyō governor of the province (ken). It wasn't a bad deal but after the daimyō of Satsuma and Chōshū proved their loyalty to the Emperor by returning their domains, the smaller daimyō didn't really have much choice.

Suggested Reading

See Also

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolition_of_the_Han_system

Abukumagawa River

aka Akurigawa.

A river with source at Asahi-san and mouth near Iwanuma.

Abutsu

aka Abutsu-ni, aka Hokurin-zenni

Achi no Omi

Adachi Family

A family of samurai who were descended from Fujiwara Yamakage (pg XXX). They are presented here because of their successes during the Minamoto---Taira wars and their subsequent affiliation with the Hōjō Family (pg XXX).

Adachi Kagemori

Died 1248

A warrior of the Adachi family, Kagemori was the son of Morinaga. He served with Minamoto Yoriie but became a monk when Minamoto Sanetomo died. This did not stop him from joining the Hōjō Family for the Shōkyū War, however.

Hōjō Tsunetoki and Hōjō Tokiyori were his grandsons.

See Also

Minamoto Sanetomo (pg XXX), Minamoto Yoriie (pg XXX), Hōjō Family (pg XXX), Shōkyū War (pg XXX), Hōjō Tsunetoki (pg XXX), Hōjō Tokiyori (pg XXX)

Adachi Kenzō

Lived 1864 to 1948.

Politician from Kumamoto.

Involved in the murder of the Korean queen in 1895.

Founding member of the Kumamoto National Party.

Elected to the House of Representatives in 1902.

Active in the Rikken Doshikai, Kenseikai, and Minseito.

Formed and was president of the Kokumin Domei in 1932.

Cabinet Posts

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katō

Communications

May 31, 1925

Aug 2, 1925

2nd Katō

Communications

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Communications

Jan 30, 1926

Apr 20, 1927

1st Wakatsuki

Home Affairs

Dec 16, 1926

Mar 15, 1927

Hamaguchi

Home Affairs

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

2nd Wakatsuki

Home Affairs

Apr 14, 1931

Dec 13, 1931

Table 3Cabinet Positions Held by Adachi Kenzō

See Also

Kumamoto National Party (pg XXX), Rikken Doshikai (pg XXX), Kenseikai (pg XXX), Minseito (pg XXX), Kokumin Domei (pg XXX).

Adachi Morinaga

Died 1200

Adachi Morinaga was a warrior who fought for Minamoto Yoritomo (pg XXX) against the Taira (pg XXX).

After the wars, he became a monk and took the name Rensai.

Adachi Yasumori

Died 1285

Adachi Yoshikage

Died 1255.

Aichi Prefecture

Area: 5,150 km2 (1995)

Capital: Nagoya

Population: 6,770,000 (1996)

Aikoku Kōtō

Aizawa Seishi

Lived 1782 to 1863

Aizu-han

Ajiki

Akabashi Moritoki

Died 1333

Akagawa Fusanobu

Akagawa Motoyasu

Son of Akagawa Fusanobu.

Mōri retainer.

Akai Naomasa

Akamatsu Family

Akamatsu Mitsusuke

Lived 1381 to 1441

Akamatsu Norifusa

Akamatsu Norimura

Lived 1277 to 1350

Akamatsu Norisuke

Lived 1312 to 1371

Akamatsu Soshu

Lived 1721 to 1801

Akamatsu Suefusa

Akamatsu Yoshinori

Lived 1358 to 1427

Akamatsu Yoshisuke

Akashi Morishige

Died 1618.

Baptised a Christian in 1596.

Was a vassal of Ukita Hideie, the daimyō of Okayama.

Morishige fought against Tokugawa Ieyasu at Sekigahara. He surrendered to Kuroda Nagamasa.

Later, he fought for the Toyotomi at Ōsaka Castle. Somehow managed to escape the fall of the castle.

See Also

Ukita Hideie (pg XX), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg XX), Kuroda Nagamasa (pg XX), Toyotomi Family (pg XX), Ōsaka, Siege of (pg XX)

Akaza Naoyasu

aka Akaza Kyūbei.

Died 1606.

One of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's retainers.

Akaza Naoyasu fought at Sekigahara under Ōtani Yoshitsugu, but switched to the Eastern side during the battle.

Later Naoyasa became a retainer of Maeda Toshinaga.

Akazome Emon

Akechi Castle

Akechi Family

Akechi Mitsuharu

aka Mitsutoshi

Akechi Mitsuhide's cousin. Mitsuharu was present for his cousin's coup, but missed the Battle of Yamazaki.

He battled Hori Hidemasa at Uchidehama, lost and fled. He committed hari-kiri and supposedly wrote a poem with his own blood before dieing.

See Also

Akechi Mitsuhide (pg XX), Yamazaki, Battle of (pg XX), Hori Hidemasa (pg XX), Uchidehama, Battle of (pg XX)

Akechi Mitsuhide

Lived 1526 to 1582

Akechi Mitsuhide was a general under, and the assassin of, Oda Nobunada.

When they found out about the assassination, both Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu rushed to be the first to avenge Nobunaga and take his place. Hideyoshi got to Mitsuhide first.

Mitsuhide began serving Oda Nobunaga in 1566 and recieved Sakamoto (in Ōmi, 100,000 koku) in 1571.

In 1579, he captured Yakami Castle from Hatano Hideharu by taking Hideharu's mother hostage. This accomplished Mitsuhide's goal but unfortunately, Nobunaga had the woman executed (crucified?). Naturally this did not make the Hatano family happy and a short while later several of Hideharu's (ex-?) retainers murdered Akechi Mitsuhide's mother!

Mitsuhide blamed Nobunaga for his mother's death and the attack at Honnōji in 1582 was his revenge.

Mitsuhide survived for 13 days, until he was defeated by Hideyoshi at the Battle of Yamazaki.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg XX), Honnōji, Seige of (pg XX), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg XX), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg XX), Hatano Hideharu (pg XX), Akechi Mitsuharu (pg XX), Yamazaki, Battle of (pg XX), Uchidehama, Battle of (pg XX)

Akechi Mitsukuni

Akimoto Family

Akimoto Nagatomo

Died 1628

Akimoto Takatomo

Lived 1647 to 1714.

Akimoto Yasutomo

Lived 1580 to 1642.

Aki Province

A province in the Western part of Honshū (pg. ), part of what is today Hiroshima Prefecture (pg. ).

Akita Castle

Akita City

The capital of Akita Prefecture (pg 19).

Akita Family

Akita Kiyoshi

Welfare Minister in Abe Nobuyuki's cabinet, from 29 November 1939 to 16 January 1940

Akita Prefecture

Area:

11,612 km2 (1995)

Capital:

Akita City (pg. 19)

Population:

1,220,000 (1996)

Table 4Data on Akita Prefecture

The old Ugo Province (pg. 374) is today Akita Prefecture.

Akita Sanesue

died 1659

Sanesue served Tokugawa Ieyasu and received Shishido (in Hitachi, 50,000 koku) in 1602.

Akita Toshisue

dates currently unknown

Toshisue was the son of Sanesue. He also served the Tokugawa and received Miharu (in Mitsu, 50,000 koku) in 1645.

Akiyama Nobutomo

dates currently unknown

Nobutomo was a famous general in service of the Takeda family.

Akizuki Castle

Akizuki Tanenaga

Tanenaga served under Kuroda Nagamasa during the Korean campaign. He sided with Ishida Mitsunari at the battle of Sekigahara but managed to keep his fief (which was?) after the battle.

See Also

Kuroda Nagamasa, Korea, Invasion of Ishida Mitsunari, Sekigahara, Battle of

Akizuki Tanezane

Tanezane lost to the Ōtomo (the who, what, when, where, and why is still to be researched). Sometime after that he joined the Shimazu (as an ally or a vassal?) and fought with them against Hideyoshi in Kyūshū.

After Sekigahara, he was transfered to Takanabe (in Hyūga, 20,000 koku).

Amakazu Kagemochi

Kagemochi was a famous general for the Uesugi family. Among other things, he fought at the Fourth Battle of Kawanakajima (1561).

Amako Family

A samurai family that fought the Mōri family. They mostly lost. The Mōri had been one of their vassals.

See Also

Mōri Family (pg XXX)

Amako Haruhisa

Lived 1514 to 1562.

Fought against Ōuchi Yoshitaka.

Fought against Mōri Motonari.

Mostly a failure (he lost a lot of battles and a lot of territory) but regained some ground after Sue Harukata killed Ōuchi Yoshitaka.

See Also

Ōuchi Yoshitaka, Mōri Motonari, Sue Harukata

Amako Katsuhisa

dates currently unknown

Lost to someone at Nunobeyama (which is where?) in 1570.

Lost to Mōri Terumoto in 1571 (where? what battle?) and fled to the island of Oki.

Later returned from Oki and captured Tajima and Inaba provinces. Defended Kozuki castle for Hideyoshi against the Mōri.

Katsuhisa was attacked by Kobayakawa Takakage and Kikkawa Motoharu (at Kozuki castle?), was defeated and committed suicide.

See Also

Nunobeyama, Battle of, Mōri Terumoto, Tajima Province, Inaba Province, Kōzuki, Seige of, Kobayakawa Takakage, Kikkawa Motoharu

Amako Kunihisa

Lived 1492 to 1554

Kunihisa was the son of Tsunehisa.

Amako Okihisa

Died 1534

Okihisa was the son of Tsunehisa.

Amako Tsunehisa

Lived 1458 to 1541

Fought against Ōuchi Yoshioka

Mōri Motonari was one of his retainers

Amako Yoshihisa

Yoshihisa was the son of Amako Katsuhisa (pg XXX). He continued the family fight against the Mōri.

While besieged in Toda Castle, Yoshihisa had a retainer, Moriyama Hisakane executed. This caused most of his remaining men to desert. With no hope of holding the castle, Yoshihisa fled and became a monk.

Amakusa Shirō

aka Masuda Tokisada.

A leader of the Shimabara Rebellion, Shirō led the defence of Hara Castle and died when it fell.

See Also

Shimabara Rebellion, Hara Castle, Hara, Seige of

Amano Takashige

Lived 1503 to 1584.

Amano Yasukage

Lived 1537 to 1637.

Amari Nobuyasu

Amari Toriyasu

Died 1548

Ama shōgun

“Ama shōgun” refers to Hōjō Masako, who was the wife of Minamoto Yoritomo, and the power behind the Kamakura shōgunate after his death. She became a nun in 1199. Ama shōgun roughly means the “Nun shōgun.”

See Also

Hōjō Masako (pg. X), Minamoto Yoritomo (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Ama

Ama is a term used to refer to nuns. In English it would be something like “nun” or “sister.”

American Black Chamber

“Black Chamber” was the name used in Europe for the government section involved in codebreaking and illicit reading of private (especially diplomatic) communications. The American govenment did not set up it's own black chamber until after World War I.

The American Black Chamber (actually the Cipher Bureau) was a group of codebreakers working for the United States government (with funding from the Army and the State Department) between July 1917 and October 1929, headed by Herbert O. Yardley (pg 379). Cracking Japanese codes was a priority. Kahn ([kahn_2004], pg 62) states:

The most important target was Japan. Its belligerence toward China jeopardized America's Open Door policy. Its emigrants exacerbated American racism. Its naval growth menaced American power in the western Pacific. Its commercial expansion threatened American dominance of Far Eastern markets.

After close to a year, Yardley and his staff finally managed to break the Japanese codes and were still reading Japanese diplomatic traffic when Washington hosted the Washington Naval Conference in 1921. The information the the Cipher Bureau provided the American delegation was instrumental in getting the Japanese side to agree to a 10:6 ratio instead of the 10:7 ratio the Japanese wanted. This was the hight of Yardley's cryptanalytic career.

The Japanese Navy was not happy with the treaty and when several years later Yardley described the whole incident in his book The American Black Chamber (pg. 23), the Japanese were not amused.

Despite their success at the Washington Conference, the truth of the matter is that Yardley and his codebreakers were not as good as Yardley believed them to be. Japanese government codes were rediculously weak in the early 1920s. The real difficulty probably lay in the Japanese language, not the Japanese codes – for several months after its founding, the American Black Chamber had no one with a good command of Japanese. British codebreakers at the time considered Japanese codes hardly worth the name.

Unfortunately, for the men and women of the Cipher Bureau the flow of diplomatic telegrams dried up as companies became less willing to break the law to help the government. In Washington, William Friedman was actively exploring cryptographic frontiers for the Army – the Cipher Bureau was becoming irrelevant. However, it was moral indignation that finally doomed the bureau. Henry L. Stimpson was Secretary of State under President Hoover. When he found out about the Cipher Bureau, he was furious and withdrew funding, summing up his argument with “Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.”

The Cipher Bureau closed its doors for good on 31 October 1929 – just two days after the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began.

Sources and Suggested Reading

The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley, [yardley_1931]

The Codebreakers by David Kahn [kahn_1996]

Angō Kaidoku Nyūmon by Toshio Takagawa, [takagawa_2003]

The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail by David Kahn, [kahn_2004]

See Also

American Black Chamber, The (pg 23), Five-Powers Treaty (pg 102), Washington Naval Conference (pg 376), Yardley, Herbert O. (pg 379),

American Black Chamber, The

A book by Herbert O. Yardley (pg 379), published in 1931, dealing with American efforts to read the communications of other countries. A large part of it is devoted to describing how Yardley and his codebreakers managed to read Japanese government codes and the advantage this gave to the American side at the Washington Naval Conference.

Sources and Suggested Reading

The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley, [yardley_1931]

The Codebreakers by David Kahn [kahn_1996]

Angō Kaidoku Nyūmon by Toshio Takagawa, [takagawa_2003]

The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail by David Kahn, [kahn_2004]

See Also

American Black Chamber (pg 22), Kowalewski, Jan (pg 194), Yardley, Herbert O. (pg 379), Washington Naval Conference (pg 376)

Anarchism

Kōtoku Shūsui led the anarchist movement until his death in 1911. It continued under Ōsugi Sakae until his murder in 1923. Both men were anarcho-syndicalists and advocated direct action by workers.

Anarchists were at odds with other socialist groups. With the success of the Russian Revolution and the death of Ōsugi, communist groups took control of the labor unions away from the anarcho-syndicalists.

See Also

Ōsugi Sakae (pg 270), Kōtoku Shūsui (pg. 194), Red Flag Incident (pg. 291),

Anayama Nobukimi

Lived 1541 to 1582.

aka Baisetsu Nobukimi.

Ando Chikasue

Ando Morinari

Ando Shigenaga

Ando Shigenobu

Lived 1558 to 1622

Anegakoji Family

Anegakoji Koretsuna

Lived 1540 to 1587

Anegakoji Yoshiyori

Died 1571

Anegawa, Battle of

Took place in 1570.

Oda Nobunaga, with Tokugawa Ieyasu and Inaba Ittetsu, fought the combined forces of Asai Nagamasa and Asakura Yoshikage. Tokugawa forces engaged the Asakura while Oda forces dealt with the Asai.

The Tokugawa forces finished off the Asakura and then turned and hit the Asai's right flank. Inaba had been held in reserve, came forward and hit the Asai left flank.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Inaba Ittetsu (pg. X), Asai Nagamasa (pg. X), Asakura Yoshikage (pg. X)

An'ei

Nengō: 1772--1780

Angen

Nengō: 1175--1176

Ankan-tennō

Japanese: 安閑天皇

The 27th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 531 to 535.

The Emperor Ankan was the 27th imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early 6th century CE.

According to the Kojiki, Ankan was the elder son of the Emperor Keitai. Ankan became emperor at age 66 and died four years later. No significant events were recorded during his reign.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ankan_of_Japan

Ankokuji Ekei

Died 1600.

Ankō-tennō

The 20th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned from 453 to 456.

Anna

Nengō: 968--969.

Annei-tennō

The 3rd Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 549 to 511 B.C.

Ansei Purge

A purge, in 1858--1859, of over 100 people from the bakufu, various han, and the Imperial court. Eight of those `purged' were also executed. It was carried out by Ii Naosuke in an effort to quiet opposition to his handling of the question of shōgunal succession and the signing of the U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce.

(Todo: Add more details on the succession dispute and the people who were purged.)

See Also

Ii Naosuke (pg. X), U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce (pg. X),

Ansei

Nengō: 1854--1859

Ansei Treaties

See U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce on page XREF

Antei

Nengō: 1227--1228

Antoku-tennō

The 81st emperor of Japan.

Reigned from 1180 to 1183.

There were two nengō during his reign, Yōwa (pg XREF) which lasted from 1181 to 1182 and Juei (pg XREF), from 1182 to 1183.

Anwa

Nengō: 968--969

Aoki Kazuo

Finance Minister in Abe Nobuyuki's cabinet, from 30 August 1939 to 16January 1940.

Aoki Shigekane

Aomori City

The capital of Aomori Prefecture.

Aomori Prefecture

Area: 9,605 km2 (1995)

Capital: Aomori

Population: 1,510,000 (1996)

Aoyama Tadanari

Aoyama Yukinari

Arahata Kanson

Lived 1887 to 1981

aka Arahata Katsuzo

Mr. Arahata participated in many of the socialist movements in his career. He started as a socialist, became an syndico-anarchist and eventually a communist and ended up serving in the Diet as a representative of the postwar Japan Socialist Party.

Arahata was from Yokohama.

He joined the Heiminsha in 1904 and was among those arrested for the Red Flag Incident of 1908.

Arahata published Kindai Shiso with Osugi Sakae.

He was member of the first Central Committee of the Japan Communist Party.

Belonged to the Rono Faction.

He was on the Central Executive Committee of the Japan Socialist Party from 1946 to 1948.

Served in the Diet from 1946 to 1949 and spent his time after that writing.

See Also

Heiminsha (pg. X), Red Flag Incident (pg. X), Kindai Shiso (pg. X), Ōsugi Sakae (pg. X), Japan Communist Party (pg. X), Rono Faction (pg. X), Japan Socialist Party (pg. X), Socialism (pg. X), Anarchism (pg. X),

Araki Murashige

Araki Sadao

Born 26 May 1877 to 2 Nov. 1966.

Soldier.

Originally from Tokyo.

Sadao was a leading member of the “Imperial Way Faction” (Kodoha). He was put on the reserve list as a result of the February 26 Uprising.

Minister of Education from 1938 to 1939.

He was tried as a “Class A” war criminal and sentenced to life.

Released from prison in 1955 for health reasons.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Inukai

War

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Saitō

War

May 26, 1932

Jan 23, 1934

1st Konoe

Education

May 26, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Hiranuma

Education

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Table 5Cabinet Positions Held by Araki Sadao

See Also

February 26 Revolt (pg. X), Imperial Way Faction (pg. X), War Crimes, Class A (pg. X),

Arima Harunobu

Possibly born in 1561. Died on 6 May 1612.

Arima Naozumi

Arima Tadayori

Arima Toyouji

Lived 1570 to 1642.

Arima Yoshisada

Lived 1521 to 1576.

Arquebus

Asahina Yasutomo

Asai Family

Asai Sukemasa --> Hisamasa --> Nagamasa

Asai Hisamasa

Lived 1524 to 1673.

The son of Asai Sukemasa. Lost to the Sasaki and retired in favor of his son Nagamasa.

Asai Nagamasa

Lived 1545 to 28 Aug. 1573.

Son of Asai Hisamasa, from whom he took over in (year??). Nagamasa successfully battled both Rokkaku Yoshitaka and Saitō Tatsuoki.

Married Oda Nobunaga's sister but later joined the Asakura family and the monks of Mt. Hiei against Nobunaga. Nagamasa was defeated by Oda and Tokugawa Ieyasu at the battle of Anegawa in 1570.

In 1573, Oda laid siege to Nagamasa's castle at Odani. Unfortunately for Nagamasa, he was there at the time. He committed suicide and in exchange, Oda spared Nagamasa's family (which of course included his---Nobunaga's---own sister).

Three of Nagamasa's daughters are famous for marrying famous men.

See Also

Asai Hisamasa (pg. X), Rokkaku Yoshitaka (pg. X), Saitō Tatsuoki (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Odani, Seige of (pg. X), Asakura Family (pg. X), Anegawa, Battle of (pg. X),

Asai Sukemasa

Lived 1495 to 1546.

Father of Asai Hisamasa. Built Odani Castle. Fought the Sasaki family.

Asakura Family

Asakura Hirokage

Asakura Kageakira

Lived 1529 to 1574.

Asakura Kagetake

Asakura Nobumasa

Lived 1583 to 1637.

Asakura Norikage

Lived 1474 to 1552.

Asakura Sadakage

Lived 1473 to 1512.

Asakura Takakage

Lived 1493 to 1546.

Asakura Toshikage

Died 1475?

Lived 1428 to 1481?

Asakura Yoshikage

Lived 24 Sept. 1533 to 20 Aug. 1573.

Asano Family

Asano Nagaakira

Lived 1586 to 1632.

Asano Nagamasa

Lived 1546 to 1610.

Asano Naganori

Lived 1667 to 1701.

Asano Nagatsune

Died 1719.

Asano Shoichirō

Lived 1848 to 1930

Businessman. From a samurai family in the Toyama region. Purchased Fukagawa Cement Works from the government in 1884, with help from Shibusawa Eiichi. Diversified his business interests, which eventually became a minor zaibatsu. Without a bank, it remained minor.

See Also

Fukagawa Cement Works (pg. X), Shibusawa Eiichi (pg. X), Zaibatsu (pg. X)

Asano Yukinaga

Lived 1576 to 1613.

Asari Umanosuke

Ashida Hitoshi

Lived 1887 to 1959.

Was Prime Minister from 10 March 1948 to 15 October 1948. He replaced Katayama Tetsu and was replaced by Yoshida Shigeru.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Shidehara

Welfare

Oct 9, 1945

May 22, 1946

Katayama

Foreign Affairs

Jun 1, 1947

Mar 10, 1948

Ashida

Foreign Affairs

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Ashida Hitoshi

Prime Minister

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Table 6Cabinet Positions Held by Ashida Hitoshi

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Ashida Hitoshi

Prime Minister

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Nagae Kazuo

Agriculture & Forestry

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Suzuki Yoshio

Attorney General

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Tomabechi Gizō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Mizutani Chōzaburō

Commerce & Industry

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Tomoyoshi Eiji

Communications

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Hitotsumatsu Sadayoshi

Construction

Jul 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Morito Tatsuo (sp?)

Education

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Kitamura Tokutarō

Finance

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Ashida Hitoshi

Foreign Affairs

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Katō Kanjū

Labor

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Nomizo Masaru

State: Chairman of the Local Finance Committee

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Funada Kyōji

State: Director of Administrative Management Agency

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Kurusu Takeo

State: Director of Central Economic Investigation Agency

Aug 1, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Kurusu Takeo

State: Director of Economic Stabilization Board & Director of Price Board

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Funada Kyōji

State: Director of Reparations Agency

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Hitotsumatsu Sadayoshi

State: President of Construction Board

Mar 10, 1948

Jul 9, 1948

Nishio Suehiro

State: Without Portfolio

Mar 10, 1948

Jul 6, 1948

Tomabechi Gizō

State: Without Portfolio

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Okada Seiichi

Transport

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Takeda Giichi

Welfare

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Table 7Ashida Hitoshi's Cabinet

See Also

Katayama Tetsu (pg. X), Yoshida Shigeru (pg. X)

Ashigaru

Japanese: 足軽

Ashigaru were foot-soldiers in medieval Japan.

Their root is believed to be that of shimobe (下部), who served by the side of government officials during Heian period. Ashigaru (literally “light-foot”, but the word most likely stems from “light armored”) were the lowest-class warriors, either the low-class buke (noble) or commoners who had joined or been impressed to the daimyo's army.

The ashigaru were foot soldiers—the cavalry was the territory of the samurai. They might have been armed with katana or just with spears (yari) unless they served as handlers of catapults. In the 1500s, they were also armed with arquebuses. As battles became more complex and forces larger, ashigaru were rigorously trained so that they would hold their ranks in the face of enemy fire.

Ashigaru armor consisted of conical hats (jingasa) made of lacquered hardened leather, breastplates and occasionally greaves protecting the legs. Some also donned small banners on their back during battle for identification purposes, called sashimono. They needed to bring provisions for themselves until reaching local gathering points and from this point on, were provided with provisions from the daimyo's warehouses.

At first the ashigaru were mercenaries or adventurers who were paid only in loot, but eventually some of them became part of local armies as retained warriors. Those who were given control of ashigaru were called ashigarugashira (足軽頭), (literally "ashigaru head"), and were provided with an annual stipend of 200 to 500 koku.

In the Sengoku period some of them rose to greater prominence. The most famous of these was Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who also raised many of his warrior followers to samurai status. Yamauchi Katsutoyo was one of these. He started as an ashigaru and was made a samurai and later became a daimyo.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashigaru

Ashikaga Chachamaru

Died 1490.

Ashikaga Masatomo

Lived 12 July 1435 to 5 April 1491.

Ashikaga Shōgunate

Japanese: 足利幕府 (Ashikaga Bakufu)

Lasted from 1338 to 1573

The Ashikaga Shōgunate was founded by Ashikaga Takauji in 1338. It lasted in theory until 1573 although in reality the Shōgun had lost control of most of the country long before that.

This period is also known as the Muromachi period and gets its name from the Muromachi area of Kyōto where the third shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu established his residence.

In part because the founder of the Ashikaga shōgunate, Ashikaga Takauji, did so by siding with the Emperor against the previous Kamakura Shōgunate, the Ashikaga shared more of the governmental authority with the Imperial government than the Kamakura had. However, most of the regional power still remained with the provincial daimyō, and the military power of the shōgunate depended largely on their loyalty to the Ashikaga. As the daimyō increasingly feuded among themselves in the pursuit of power, that loyalty grew increasingly strained, until it erupted into open warfare in the late Muromachi period, also known as the Sengoku Period.

The Ashikaga shōgunate was destroyed in 1573 when Oda Nobunaga drove the 15th and last Ashikaga shōgun Yoshiaki out of Kyōto. Afterwards, Yoshiaki sought and received protection from the Mōri Family in western Japan. The Ashikaga family still exists today.

There is a list of the Ashikaga Shōgun on page 415.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate



See Also

Ashikaga Takauji (pg. X), Ashikaga Yoshiaki (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), List of Ashigaka Shōgun (pg. X),

Ashikaga Tadayoshi

Lived 1306 to 26 Feb. 1352.

Ashikaga Takauji

The 1st Ashikaga shōgun.

Lived 1305 to 30 April 1358.

Ruled 11 Aug. 1338 to 30 April 1358.

Son of Ashikaga Sadauji.

Fought in the Genkō War (1331--1333).

Turned against the Hōjō and took Rokuhara (who, what, and where?). For which he was granted Musashi, Shimōsa, Hitachi.

Defeated Hōjō Tokiyuki and took Kamakura. Declared himself shōgun. Lost to Nitta Yoshisada in Mikawa and Suruga.

Beat someone in the mountains in Hakone which helped him rally other daimyō to his cause. Later took Kyōto. Lost Kyōto to Kitabatake Akiie, Nitta Yoshisada, and Kusunoki Masashige (among others). Lost again near Hyōgo and fled to Kyūshū.

Defeated Kikuchi Taketoshi at Tatara-hama in Chikuzen. Returned to Honshū and defeated Nitta and Kusunoki at Minato-gawa.

Entered Kyōto, deposed Go-Daigo and installed Kōmyō as Emperor. Go-Daigo fled and established the southern court. Takauji spent the rest of his life fighting against samurai loyal to the southern emperor.

Ashikaga Takauji established the Ashigaka shōgunate, which lasted, in theory, until 1573. In practice, the Ashikaga shōgun lost much of their power long before then.

The period of Ashikaga rule is also known as the Muromachi period.

Ashikaga Yoshiakira

Lived 18 June 1330 to 7 Dec. 1367.

Ruled 8 Dec. 1358 to 7 Dec. 1367.

The 2nd Ashikaga shōgun.

Ashikaga Yoshiaki

Japanese: 足利義昭

Lived 3 Nov. 1537 to 28 Aug. 1597.

Ruled 18 Oct. 1568 to 18 July 1573.

15th Ashikaga shōgun

Yoshiaki was installed in 1567 as the 15th Ashikaga Shōgun by Oda Nobunaga. Yoshiaki was not quite as tame as Nobunaga thought however – he conspired with Takeda Shingen to free himself from Oda's control. Nobunaga deposed Yoshiaki in 1673 and didn't bother replacing him, which is a pretty good indication of just how powerless / meaningless the Shōgunate had become.

Ashikaga Yoshiharu

Lived 5 March 1511 to 4 May 1550.

Ruled 25 Dec. 1521 to 20 Dec. 1545.

12th Ashikaga shōgun. First son of Ashikaga Yoshizumi.

Powerless. Controlled by the daimyō. Eventually forced to flee. (Why? From whom? To where?)

Ashikaga Yoshihide

Lived 1564 to 1568

Ruled 1568--1568

14th Ashikaga shōgun

Chosen (by whom?) as a two year old to replace Yoshiteru, but did not get Oda Nobunaga's support. With such a powerful daimyō against him, Yoshihide had no hope of ever getting to rule (never mind his age). His handlers fled, taking him with them of course, and Yoshihide died at the tender age of four.

Who was behind him, pulling the strings in his name? Seriously, there is no way a two year old was deciding anything. Was it his mother or a grandparent? A cousin or some faction at court? Obviously he had to have had some support from a few daimyō, but which ones and why?

Ashikaga Yoshihisa

Lived 23 Nov. 1465 to 26 March 1489.

Ruled 19 Dec. 1474 to 26 March 1489.

The 9th Ashikaga shōgun. The first son of Ashikaga Yoshimasa.

Ashikaga Yoshikatsu

Lived 9 Feb. 1434 to 21 July 1443.

Ruled 7 Nov. 1442 to 21 July 1443.

The 7th Ashikaga shōgun. The first son of Ashikaga Yoshinori.

Ashikaga Yoshikazu

Lived 24 July 1407 to 27 Feb. 1425.

Ruled 18 March 1423 to 27 Feb. 1425.

The 5th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Ashikaga Yoshimochi.

Ashikaga Yoshimasa

Lived 2 Jan. 1436 to 7 Jan. 1490.

Ruled 29 April 1449 to 19 Dec. 1473.

The 8th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Ashikaga Yoshinori, who was the 6th Ashikaga shōgun.

Yoshimasa was also known as Yoshishige.

Yoshimasa was shōgun during the Ōnin War which ravaged Kyōto.

He build the Ginkakuji.

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu

Lived 22 Aug. 1358 to 6 May 1408.

Ruled 30 Dec. 1368 to 17 Dec. 1394.

The 3rd Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Yoshiakira, the second shōgun.

Ended the Nambokuchō War.

Build the Kinkakuji.

Ashikaga Yoshimochi

Lived 12 Feb. 1386 to 18 Jan. 1428.

Ruled 17 Dec. 1394 to 18 March 1423.

The 4th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Yoshimitsu, the third shōgun.

Ashikaga Yoshinori

Lived 13 June 1394 to 24 June 1441.

Ruled 15 March 1429 to 24 June 1441.

The 6th Ashikaga shōgun. Son of Yoshimitsu, the third shōgun.

Ashikaga Yoshitane

Lived 30 July 1466 to 9 April 1523.

Ruled 5 July 1490 to 29 June 1493. And again from 1 July 1508 to 25 Dec. 1521.

Yoshitane was the 10th and 12th Ashikaga Shōgun.

Also known as Yoshiki or Yoshitada.

Yoshitane lost (to whom?) at Shōgakuji in 1491 (?). He fled and was replaced by Ashikaga Yoshizumi (page XXX).

Ashikaga Yoshiteru

Lived 10 March 1536 to 19 May 1565.

Ruled 20 Dec. 1546 to 19 May 1565.

The 13th Ashikaga shōgun. First son of Yoshiharu, the twelfth shōgun.

Yoshiteru allied with Hosokawa Harumoto.

Was attacked by Miyoshi Chōkei and Matsunaga Hisahide, lost and committed suicide.

Ashikaga Yoshizumi

Lived 15 Dec. 1480 to 14 Aug. 1511.

Ruled 27 Dec. 1494 to 16 April 1508.

11th Ashikaga shōgun.

Replaced Yoshitane in 1491 but later Yoshitane replaced him.

Ashina Family

Ashina Morikiyo

Lived 1490 to 1553.

Ashina Morishige

Ashina Moritaka

Lived 1560 to 1583

Ashina Moriuji

Lived 1521 to 1580.

Aso Family

Aso Hisashi

Lived 1891 to 1940.

Aso Koretoyo

Lived 1543 to 1584.

Atagi Fuyuyasu

Died 1564.

Atagi Nobuyasu

Atobe Katsusuke

Lived 1529 to 1582.

Atsuji Sadahise

Awaji Province

The island of Awaji, between Honshū and Shikoku. Today it is part of Hyōgo Prefecture.

See Also

Hyōgo (pg. X),

Ayukawa Kiyonaga

Ayukawa Yoshisuke

Lived 6 Nov. 1880 to 13 Feb. 1967.

Also known as Aikawa Yoshisuke.

A businessman (check that) and politician originally from Yamaguchi Prefecture.

Azuchi-Momoyama Period

Japanese: 安土桃山時代 (あづちももやまじだい)

The Azuchi-Momoyama period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1568 to 1600. The period marks the governance of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The name Azuchi-Momoyama comes from the names of their respective castles in Kyōto, Azuchi and Momoyama.

The Azuchi-Momoyama period began out of the late Muromachi Period, known also as the Sengoku period, in 1568 when the armies of Nobunaga entered Kyōto and reestablished the Ashikaga Shogunate under the 15th and last shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki. The puppet shogunate lasted for 5 years until Nobunaga drove Yoshiaki of the capital in 1573.

In 1582, Nobunaga was assassinated in a coup by retainer Akechi Mitsuhide at Honnou Temple in Kyōto. Nobunaga's retainer Hashiba Hideyoshi, the later Toyotomi Hideyoshi, vanquished Mitsuhide at the Battle of Yamazaki and consolidated his own power in Kyōto to eventually conquer all of Japan by 1590.

When Toyotomi Hideyoshi died in 1598, his retainer Tokugawa Ieyasu sought to subjugate the Toyotomi. After the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, Ieyasu held supreme power over Japan beginning the Edo period, and finally in 1603 received the title of shogun officially establishing the Tokugawa Shogunate in Edo.

Reunification, 1573-1600

Between 1560 and 1600, powerful military leaders arose to defeat the warring daimyo and unify Japan. Three major figures dominated the period in succession: Oda Nobunaga (1534-82), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-98), and Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616), each of whom emerged as a major overlord with large military forces under his command. As their power increased, they looked to the imperial court in Kyōto for sanction. In 1568 Nobunaga, who had defeated another overlord's attempt to attack Kyōto in 1560, marched on the capital, gained the support of the emperor, and installed his own candidate in the succession struggle for shogun. Backed by military force, Nobunaga was able to control the bakufu.

Initial resistance to Nobunaga in the Kyōto region came from the Buddhist monks, rival daimyo, and hostile merchants. Surrounded by his enemies, Nobunaga struck first at the secular power of the militant Tendai Buddhists, destroying their monastic center at Mount Hiei near Kyōto and killing thousands of monks in 1571. By 1573 he had defeated the local daimyo, banished the last Ashikaga shogun, and ushered in what historians call the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573-1600), named after the castles of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi. Having taken these major steps toward reunification, Nobunaga then built a seven-story castle surrounded by stone walls at Azuchi on the shore of Lake Biwa. The castle was able to withstand firearms and became a symbol of the age of reunification. Nobunaga's power increased as he enfeoffed the conquered daimyo, broke down the barriers to free commerce, and drew the humbled religious communities and merchants into his military structure. He secured control of about one-third of the provinces through the use of large-scale warfare, and he institutionalized administrative practices, such as systematic village organization, tax collection, and standardized measurements. At the same time, other daimyo, both those that Nobunaga had conquered and those beyond his control, built their own heavily fortified castles and modernized their garrisons. In 1577 Nobunaga dispatched his chief general, Hideyoshi, to conquer twelve western Honshu provinces. The war was a protracted affair, and in 1582, when Nobunaga led an army to assist Hideyoshi, he was assassinated.

After destroying the forces responsible for Nobunaga's death, Hideyoshi was rewarded with a joint guardianship of Nobunaga's heir, who was a minor. By 1584 Hideyoshi had eliminated the three other guardians, taken complete control of Kyōto, and become the undisputed successor of his late overlord. A commoner by birth and without a surname, Hideyoshi was adopted by the Fujiwara family, given the surname Toyotomi, and granted the title kanpaku, representing civil and military control of all Japan. By the following year, he had secured alliances with three of the nine major daimyo coalitions and continued the war of reunification in Shikoku and northern Kyushu. In 1590, with an army of 200,000 troops, Hideyoshi defeated his last formidable rival, who controlled the Kanto region of eastern Honshu. The remaining contending daimyo capitulated, and the military reunification of Japan was complete.

All of Japan was controlled by the dictatorial Hideyoshi either directly or through his sworn vassals, and a new national government structure had evolved: a country unified under one daimyo alliance but still decentralized. The basis of the power structure was again the distribution of territory. A new unit of land measurement and assessment--the koku--was instituted. One koku was equivalent to about 180 liters of rice; daimyo were by definition those who held lands capable of producing 10,000 koku or more of rice. Hideyoshi personally controlled 2 million of the 18.5 million koku total national assessment (taken in 1598). Tokugawa Ieyasu, a powerful central Honshu daimyo (not completely under Hideyoshi's control), held 2.5 million koku.

Despite Hideyoshi's tremendous strength and the fear in which he was held, his position was far from secure. He attempted to rearrange the daimyo holdings to his advantage by, for example, reassigning the Tokugawa family to the conquered Kanto region and surrounding their new territory with more trusted vassals. He also adopted a hostage system for daimyo wives and heirs at his castle town at Osaka and used marriage alliances to enforce feudal bonds. He imposed the koku system and land surveys to reassess the entire nation. In 1590 Hideyoshi declared an end to any further class mobility or change in social status, reinforcing the class distinctions between cultivators and bushi (only the latter could bear arms). He provided for an orderly succession in 1591 by taking the title taiko, or retired kanpaku, turning the regency over to his son Hideyori. Only toward the end of his life did Hideyoshi try to formalize the balance of power by establishing certain administrative bodies: the five-member Board of Regents (one of them Ieyasu), sworn to keep peace and support the Toyotomi, the five-member Board of House Administrators for routine policy and administrative matters, and the three-member Board of Mediators, who were charged with keeping peace between the first two boards.

Momoyama art (1573-1615), named after the hill on which Hideyoshi built his castle at Fushima, south of Kyōto, flourished during this period. It was a period of interest in the outside world, the development of large urban centers, and the rise of the merchant and leisure classes. Ornate castle architecture and interiors adorned with painted screens embellished with gold leaf reflected daimyo power and wealth. Depictions of the "southern barbarians"--Europeans--were exotic and popular.

In 1577 Hideyoshi had seized Nagasaki, Japan's major point of contact with the outside world. He took control of the various trade associations and tried to regulate all overseas activities. Although China rebuffed his efforts to secure trade concessions, Hideyoshi succeeded in sending commercial missions to present-day Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. He was suspicious of Christianity, however, as potentially subversive to daimyo loyalties and he had some missionaries crucified.

Hideyoshi's major ambition was to conquer China, and in 1592, with an army of 200,000 troops, he invaded Korea, then a flourishing wealthy kingdom that enjoyed an alliance with China. His armies quickly overran the peninsula before losing momentum in the face of a combined Korean-Chinese force and crushing naval defeats suffered due to Admiral Yi Sun-sin's efforts. During peace talks, Hideyoshi demanded a division of Korea, freetrade status, and a Chinese princess as consort for the emperor. The equality with China sought by Japan was rebuffed by the Chinese, and peace efforts ended. In 1597, a second invasion was begun, but it abruptly ended with Hideyoshi's death in 1598.

Sources and Suggested Readings

This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. - Japan (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html)

See Also

Muromachi period, Edo period

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azuchi-Momoyama_period

Azukizaka, Battle of (1542)

Took place in 1542.

Oda Nobuhide defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Imagawa Yoshimoto (pg. X), Azukizawa, Battle of (1564) (pg. X),

Azukizaka, Battle of (1564)

The second battle of Azukizaka took place in 1564, when Tokugawa Ieyasu sought to combat the growing threat of the Ikko-ikki, a sect of warrior monks who were strongly against samurai rule. The Ikki consisted of samurai, monks, and peasants, many of whom were vassals of Tokugawa.

As the battle wore on, a number of samurai from the Ikki forces switched sides, deciding that their feudal obligation to Tokugawa was stronger than their loyalty to the Ikki; it was only because of this that Tokugawa was able to win the battle.

Suggested Readings

Turnbull, Stephen, 'Japanese Warrior Monks AD 949-1603'. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Azukizaka_(1564)

Baba Family – Buzen Province

Baba Family

Baba Nobufusa

Baba Nobuharu

Died 1582

Baba Nobukatsu

Lived 1514 to 1575

Baba Nobushige

Baba Tatsui

Lived 15 May 1850 to 1 Nov. 1888.

Baba Torasada

Bakin

aka Kyokutei Bakin

Lived 1767 to 1848

Bakumatsu

Japanese: 幕末

The name given to the last years of the Tokugawa Shōgunate.

The late Tokugawa shogunate is the period between 1853 and 1867 during which Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy called sakoku and modernized from a feudal shogunate to the Meiji government. It is at end of the Edo period and preceded the Meiji era. The major ideological/political factions during this period were divided into the pro-imperialist Ishin Shishi (nationalist patriots) and the shogunate forces, including the elite Shinsengumi (newly selected corps) swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of Bakumatsu to seize personal power. The turning point of the Bakumatsu was during the Boshin War and the Battle of Toba Fushimi. The Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu decided to deceive his own men and sailed for Edo from Osaka Bay. That was the main reason for the imperial army's victory.

End of seclusion

When Cmdre Matthew C. Perry's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay in July 1853, the bakufu was thrown into turmoil. The chairman of the senior councillors, Abe Masahiro (1819–1857), was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security, Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the daimyo who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe decided to compromise by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) opened two ports to American ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda, a seaport on the Izu Peninsula, southwest of Edo. A commercial treaty, opening still more areas to American trade, was forced on the bakufu five years later.

The resulting damage to the bakufu was significant. Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the bakufu. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai, had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyo, further undermining the already weakened bakufu. In the Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855 a naval training school with Dutch instructors was set up at Nagasaki, and a Western-style military school was established at Edo; by the next year, the government was translating Western books. Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening bakufu councils to tozama daimyo, and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councillors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864).

At the head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki, who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with antiforeign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school—based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, the turning back of the West, and the founding of a world empire under the divine Yamato Dynasty.

In the final years of the Tokugawa, foreign contacts increased as more concessions were granted. The new treaty with the United States in 1859 allowed more ports to be opened to diplomatic representatives, unsupervised trade at four additional ports, and foreign residences in Osaka and Edo. It also embodied the concept of extraterritoriality (foreigners were subject to the laws of their own countries but not to Japanese law). Hotta lost the support of key daimyo, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu, rejected Hotta's request and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shogun died without an heir, Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shogun, a candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyo. The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing Tokugawa Yoshitomi, arresting Nariaki and Keiki, executing Yoshida Shoin (1830–1859, a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu), and signing treaties with the United States and five other nations, thus ending more than 200 years of exclusion.

Bakumatsu modernization and conflicts

During the last years of the bakufu, or bakumatsu, the bakufu took strong measure to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country.

The army and the navy were modernized. A naval training school was established in Nagasaki in 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto. French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy of the shogun already possessed eight western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru, which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin war, under the command of Admiral Enomoto. A French military mission was established to help modernize the armies of the bakufu.

Revering the emperor as a symbol of unity, extremists wrought violence and death against the Bakufu and Han authorities and foreigners. Foreign naval retaliation in the Anglo-Satsuma War led to still another concessionary commercial treaty in 1865, but Yoshitomi was unable to enforce the Western treaties. A bakufu army was defeated when it was sent to crush dissent in the han of Satsuma and Choshu in 1866. Finally, in 1867, the emperor died and was succeeded by his minor son Mutsuhito.

Keiki reluctantly became head of the Tokugawa house and shogun. He tried to reorganize the government under the emperor while preserving the shogun's leadership role. Fearing the growing power of the Satsuma and Choshu daimyo, other daimyo called for returning the shogun's political power to the emperor and a council of daimyo chaired by the former Tokugawa shogun. Keiki accepted the plan in late 1867 and resigned, announcing an "imperial restoration". The Satsuma, Choshu, and other han leaders and radical courtiers, however, rebelled, seized the imperial palace, and announced their own restoration on January 3, 1868.

Following the Boshin war (1868–1869), the bakufu was abolished, and Keiki was reduced to the ranks of the common daimyo. Resistance continued in the North throughout 1868, and the bakufu naval forces under Admiral Enomoto Takeaki continued to hold out for another six months in Hokkaido, where they founded the short-lived Republic of Ezo.

See also:

Ohmura Masujiro, Sakamoto Ryoma, Kondo Isami, Takasugi Shinsaku, Yoshida Shoin, Katsura Kogoro, Nomura Motoni, Hayashi Daigaku no kami (Lord Rector, Confucianist), Ido Tsushima no kami (Governor of Yedo, former Gov. of Nagasaki), Izawa Mimasaka no kami (Gov. of Uraga, former Gov of Nagasaki), Kawakami Gensai (Greatest of 4 hitokiri, active in assassinations during this time period), Ernest Satow

External links

Languages and the Diplomatic Contacts in the Late Tokugawa Shogunate:

http://www.webkohbo.com/info3/bakumatu_menu/bakutop.html (in Japanese)

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakumatsu



Ban Kokei

Lived 1733 to 1806

Ban Nobutomo

Lived 1775 to 1848

Battles

Rather than list every single battle in the history of Japan with a redirect to another page, there is just this one. Battles are listed in `(Name), Battle of' form so look under `name' instead. Thus the Battle of Sekigahara is found under `Sekigahara, Battle of' in the S's.

The index also has a listing of all the battles under their entry names as well as a long list under `Battles'.

Bekki Shozaemon

aka Betsuki Shozaemon??

Died 21 Sep 1652.

Ben En

Died 1279

Bengyoku

aka Kei-a Shonin

Lived 1818 to 1880

Benkei

aka Musashi-bo

Died 1189

Warrior and retainer of Minamoto Yoshitsune. Famous for his martial exploits.

See Also

Minamoto Yoshitsune (pg. X),

Ben no Naishi

Benten

aka Benzaiten

Bessho Family

Bessho Harusada

Bessho Nagaharu

Lived 1558 to 1580

Bessho Toyoharu

Bifuku Mon-in

aka Fujiwara Toku-ko

Lived 1117 to 1160

Bingo Province

A province on the Inland Sea side of western Honshū, in what is today Hiroshima Prefecture. Bingo bordered on Bitchū, Hōki, Izumo, Iwami, and Aki Provinces.

See Also

Hiroshima Prefecture (pg. X), Aki Province (pg. X), Bitchū Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Iwaki Province (pg. X), Izumo Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X)

Bingo no Saburo

aka Kojima Takanori

Bishamon

Bitatsu-tennō

aka Osada,

aka Nunakurafutotama-shiki

Reigned 572 to 585.

The 30th Emperor of Japan.

Bitchū Province

A province on the Inland Sea side of western Honshū, in what is today Okayama Prefecture. Bitchū bordered on Hōki, Mimasaki, Bizen, and Bingo Provinces.

See Also

Okayama Prefecture (pg. X), Bingo Province (pg. X), Bizen Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X)

Bitō Family

Bitō Nishu

Lived 1745 to 1813

Bizen Province

A province on the Inland Sea side of Honshū, in what is today Okayama Prefecture. Bizen borders on Mimasaki, Harima, and Bitchū Provinces.

See Also

Okayama Prefecture (pg. X), Bitchū Province (pg. X), Harima Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X),

Bojo Family

A kuge family descended from Fujiwara Morosuke.

See Also

Fujiwara Family (pg. X),

Fujiwara Morosuke (pg. X),

Bomon Kiyotada

Died 1338.

A member of the kuge class. Son of Fujiwara Toshisuke, Kiyotada worked against Ashikaga Takauji at the court.

Bon

The festival of the dead. Some parts of Japan celebrate Bon (also Obon) in mid-July, others in mid-August.

The spirits of the dead are believed to return to earth at Bon. During this holiday, which generally lasts about three days, many people return to their hometowns to visit their families and say hello to their ancestors.

Boshin War

Japanese: 戊辰戦争

1868-1869

The Boshin War was fought between supporters of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the new Imperial forces.

Discontent between the shogunate and the reformist sonnō-jōi movement had been brewing for years. In November 1866, Emperor Meiji had given the rebellious provinces of Satsuma and Choshu the right to overthrow the shogunate; however, reigning Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu deftly sidestepped this by resigning his post (but not his power) the next day.

Events came to a head on January 3, 1868 when the emperor declared his own restoration to full power, and the war started seven days later when Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu declared the declaration "illegal" and attacked Kyoto, the seat of the emperor. Despite a 3:1 numerical advantage and training by French military advisors, the first significant battle near Toba and Fushimi led to a rout of the 15,000-strong shogunate forces, and Yoshinobu was forced to flee to Edo. Saigo Takamori led the victorious imperial forces north and east through Japan, eventually leading to the unconditional surrender of Edo in May 1868.

After Yoshinobu's surrender, most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, but a core of shogunate supporters led by the Aizu clan continued the resistance. After a protracted month-long battle, Aizu finally admitted defeat on September 23, leading to the mass suicide of the Byakkotai (White Tiger Corps) young warriors. A month later, Edo was renamed Tokyo, and the Meiji Era started.

In a final chapter to the war, navy official Enomoto Takeaki had fled to Hokkaido with the remnants of the shogun's navy and a handful of faithful French military advisors (especially Jules Brunet) and attempted to establish the Republic of Ezo there, but this too was crushed by Meiji forces in May 1869, bringing the war to an end.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boshin_War

Buddhism

Bukkyo in Japanese. One of the two main religious influences on Japanese culture (Shintō is the other).

The man known as the Buddha lived around 550 B.C. in India and before he died he started a religion whose impact on Asia cannot be measured. Although it eventually died out in its native India, Buddhism spread to Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea, and Japan, as well as the countries of South East Asia. Buddhism was already over a thousand years old when it reached Japan and had changed considerably in those years.

The Buddha was concerned with just one thing --- how to end suffering. Indians back then, like many today, believed that all living things are reborn in a constant cycle of birth and death. The Buddha also believed this and concluded that if we could break free from this cycle, we could end the suffering that goes with living. His Four Noble Truths sum it up better than I can:

  1. All existence is suffering.

  2. Suffering is caused by desire.

  3. If you end desire then you end suffering.

  4. Following the Eight Fold Path will enable you to end desire.

The Eight Fold Path describes the proper way to live to achieve enlightenment. It is not an easy path, and in theory it could take you several lifetimes to finally transcend the cycle of birth and death. The path demands great sacrifice and discipline. Obviously such a seemingly pessimistic and difficult religion is going to have some public relations problems. Joe (and Jane) Layman doesn't have enough spare time to spend hours sitting on his butt meditating. Neither are most people real interested in giving up married life. So why has Buddhism been so popular? The answer is simple: in Tibet and China it mixed with local shamanistic ideas and practices to become a “Big Vehicle” offering rituals and prayers to comfort the common people and offer them some hope of salvation in this lifetime. The Buddha himself was deified. Eventually there were a multitude of schools (sects) in East Asia each stressing some element of the Buddha's teachings or those of popular priests after him. In Southeast Asia Buddhism was not exposed to Tibetan or Chinese practices and so has remained much closer to original Buddhism. The Buddhism which cameinto Japan was of the “Big Vehicle” sort. Each class found a school of Buddhism that suited its outlook and station. Thus, the imperial court was drawn to sects heavy in ritual and philosophy. Commoners generally went for the simpler sects which promised them salvation.

The samurai found Zen Buddhism perfectly suited to their needs --- the need to die at anytime without any hesitation.

Add info on the introduction of Buddhism to Japan and the various schools.

Bukeyashiki

aka “Samurai District'', the Bukeyashiki is an area in Kanazawa with old samurai houses from the Tokugawa Period.

See Also

Kanazawa City (pg. X), Tokugawa Shōgunate (pg. X),

Bukko Kokushi

aka Sogen

Lived 1226 to 1286

Bukkyo

see Buddhism on page XXX.

Bummei

Nengō: 1469--1486

Bumpō

Nengō: 1317--1318.

Bun'an

Nengō: 1444--1448

Bunchū

Nengō: 1371-1375

Bun'ei

Nengō: 1264--1274

Bungo Province

A province in eastern Kyūshū, which bordered on Buzen, Hyūga, Higo, Chikugo, and Chikuzen Provinces. Today the area is Ōita Prefecture.

See Also

Buzen Province (pg. X), Chikugo Province (pg. X), Chikuzen Province (pg. X), Higo Province (pg. X), Hyūga Province (pg. X), Ōita Prefecture (pg. X)

Bunji

Nengō: 1185--1189

Bunkan

Died 1357

Bunka

Nengō: 1804--1817

Bunki

Nengō: 1501--1503

Bunkyū

Nengō: 1861--1863.

Bunnan

Nengō: 1444--1448.

aka Bun'an.

Bun'ō

Nengō: 1260.

Bunreki

Nengō: 1234

aka Bunryaku.

Bunroku

Nengō: 1592--1595

Bunryaku

Nengō: 1234

aka Bunreki.

Bunsei

Nengō: 1818--1829

Bunshō

Nengō: 1466.

Buntoku-tennō

see Montoku-tennō on page 230.

Bunwa

Nengō of the Northern dynasty: 1352--1355

Bunya Family

aka Fumiya Family

Buretsu-tennō

aka Ohatsuse-waka-sasagi.

The 25th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 499 to 506.

Buson

aka Taniguchi Buson

aka Yosa

Butsu Sorai

aka Ogui Sorai

Lived 1666 to 1728

Buzen Province

A province in northern Kyūshū, which bordered on Bungo and Chikuzen Provinces. Today the area is a part of Fukuoka Prefecture.

Domains (feifs) include Nakatsu, worth 120,000 koku and held by Kuroda Nagamasa prior to the Battle of Sekigahara (he was moved to a bigger domain after that battle).

See Also

Bungo Province (pg. X), Chikuzen Province (pg. X), Fukuoka Prefecture (pg. X), Kuroda Nagamasa (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X)

Chang Tso-lin – Currency

Chang Tso-lin

Died 4 June 1928

Chang was a warlord in Northern China. He was assassinated by officers of the Japanese Kwantung army.

Chian

Chiba City

The capital of Chiba Prefecture.

Chiba Family

Chiba Kanetane

Chiba Prefecture

Area: 5,156 km2 (1995)

Capital: Chiba

Population: 5,780,000 (1996)

Chiba Sadatane

Lived 1291 to 1351

Chiba Sanetane

Chiba Shigetane

Chiba Takatane

Chiba Tanenao

Chiba Toshitane

Lived 1528 to 1559

Chiba Tsunetane

Born on the 24th day of the 5th month of 1118.

Died on the 24th day of the 3rd month of 1201.

Chikamatsu Monzaemon

aka Sugimori Nobumori

Lived 1653 to 1724

Chikugo Province

An old province in the area that is today part of Fukuoka Prefecture, on Kyūshū. Chikugo bordered on Hizen, Chikuzen, Bungo, and Higo Provinces.

See Also

Bungo Province (pg. X), Chikuzen Province (pg. X), Fukuoka (pg. X), Higo Province (pg. X), Hizen Province (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X),

Chikusa Family (daimyō)

Chikusa Family (kuge)

Chikusa Tadaharu

Chikusa Tadamoto

Chikusa Takamichi

Chikuzen Province

Province in the area that is today part of Fukuoka Prefecture on Kyūshū. Chikuzen bordered on Buzen, Bungo, Chikugo, and Hizen.

Domains (feifs) include Najima, worth 520,000 koku and granted to Kuroda Nagamasa after the Battle of Sekigahara.

See Also

Bungo Province (pg. X), Buzen Province (pg. X), Chikugo Province (pg. X), Fukuoka (pg. X), Hizen Province (pg. X), Kuroda Nagamasa (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X),

Chiryaku

Chitsu

Cho Densu

aka Mincho

Lived 1352 to 1431.

Chōgen

Nengō: 1028--1036.

Chōhō

Nengō: 999--1003.

Chōji

Nengō: 1104--1105.

Chōjō

Nengō: 1132--1134.

aka Chōshō.

Chōkan

Nengō: 1163--1164.

Chōkei-tennō

The 98th Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1368 to 1383.

Chōkyō

Nengō: 1487--1488.

Chōkyū

Nengo: 1040--1043.

Chōreki

Nengō: 1037--1039.

aka Chōryaku.

Chōroku

Nengō: 1457--1459.

Chōryaku

Nengō: 1037--1039.

aka Chōreki.

Chōshō

Nengō: 1132--1134.

aka Chōjō.

Chōsokabe Family

Chōsokabe Kunichika

Lived 1504 to 1560.

Chōsokabe Morichika

Lived 1575 to 1615.

Was on the losing side at Sekigahara. He later joined the defenders at Osaka Castle, for which he was beheaded after the castle fell.

Chōsokabe Motochika

Lived 1538 to 19 May 1599.

Chōsokabe Nobuchika

Lived 1565 to 1587.

Chōtoku

Nengō: 995--998.

Cho Tsugutsura

Lived 1522 to 1577.

Cho Tsuratatsu

Chōwa

Nengō: 1012--1016.

Chūai-tennō

The 14th Emperor of Japan.

Chūkyō-tennō

The 85th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 10 Oct. 1218 to 20 May 1234.

Reigned 20 April 1221 to 9 July 1221.

Class `A' War Crimes

See War Crimes, Class A on page XXX

Comfort Women

Japanese: 慰安婦 (ianfu)

The term “comfort women” is a euphemism for women serving in military brothels in Japanese-occupied countries during World War II. Many surviving women have testified to being tricked, coerced, or forced into serving the Imperial Japanese Army during its occupation of Korea, China, and much of South East Asia.

In the Japanese language, ianfu (comfort woman) is a euphemism for prostitute. However, now it specifically refers to jūgun-ianfu (従軍慰安婦, “military comfort women”) – those women who served in Japanese military brothels during World War II in Japanese colonies and war areas. Many of these “comfort women” were forced, coerced, or tricked into sexual service for the Japanese military. According to research by Dr. Hirohumi Hayasi, a professor at Kantō-Gakuin Daigaku, comfort women included Chinese, Malays, Thais, Filipinos, Indonesians, Burmese, Vietnamese, Indians, Dutch, Japanese, Koreans and natives of the Pacific islands. Estimates of the number of comfort women during the war range from 20,000 to 300,000. Most of the brothels where comfort women served were located in Japanese military bases, usually in occupied areas in mainland Asia.

Brothels as Part of Japanese Military Policy

One of the ironies of Japanese military brothel system was that part of the reason the system was introduced was to prevent Japanese soldiers from committing rape. The Japanese military considered that, unless soldiers were provided with access to brothels, the soldiers might rape woman in areas under Japanese control, which might undermine support for Japanese rule. Another reason for the system was to keep the medical inspection of the prostitutes directly under the control of the military, thus preventing the spread of STDs among soldiers. A third reason was to provide sex as part of recreation to raise the morale of troops; a fourth was to bring the brothels directly to the front line so as to remove the need to grant leave to soldiers.

Initially, a conventional method of procuring prostitutes was used. Middlemen procured prostitutes within Japan and from Japanese colonies in Korea, Taiwan and Manchuria. Some were recruited by advertising in newspapers. Most of those who became comfort women by answering advertisements were already prostitutes and offered their services voluntarily. However, many were tricked into service or their families were forced to sell them due to economic hardship. Some who became confort women were kidnapped by the middlemen, especially in Japanese colonies (as opposed to Japan proper). Japanese women who served in overseas brothels are known as karayukisan and they often become managers of these military brothels.

However, the supply from these sources soon dried up, especially from Japan, where the Ministry of Foreign Affairs resisted issuing visas for Japanese comfort women. They believed the presence of Japanese prostitutes in colonial areas would tarnish the image of the empire. Soon, the military sought women directly from local sources. This is when the rampant abuse of the system occurred. Although in urban areas the usual methods – middlemen and existing brothels – might be sufficient, at the front lines or in the countryside (where middlemen or brothels were not sufficient to meet demand) the army directly demanded that the local leaders procure women for their brothels.

Responsibility and Compensation

Japan regards all World War II compensation claims to be settled, with the single exception of North Korea, with which it has not signed any treaty for war time settlement. These treaties settle all claims at the government level. However, as is the case with most treaties concerning the War, they do not cover civilian claims.

Japan regards South Korea's official compensation claim as having been settled by the Treaty on Basic Relations and Agreement of Economic Cooperation and Property Claims between Japan and the Republic of Korea in 1965.

In 1990 the Korean Council for Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery, with help from Japanese organizations, filed suit, demanding apologies and compensation. Independently several comfort women also filed suit, in the Tokyo District Court. More suits followed in the ensuing years. However, it was widely expected from the beginning that the court would reject all of these claims on the basis of the statutes of limitation or on the basis that the state is immune from civil suits in court on the matter of wartime conduct. Nevertheless, these suits have helped to revive and keep alive the issue of comfort women in Japan as well as in the international media.

Former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone stated in his memoirs, published in 1978, that he set up a comfort house for his troops when he was a navy lieutenant in charge of accounting. Nevertheless, up until 1992, the Japanese government denied any official connection to the wartime brothels. In June 1990, the Japanese government declared that they were run by private contractors. However, since 1992, when the historian Yoshimi Yoshiaki discovered incriminating documents in the archives of Japan's National Defense Agency indicating that the military was directly involved in running the brothels (by, for example, selecting the agents who recruited or coerced women into service), Japan's official position has been one of admitting “moral but not legal” responsibility.

In 1995, a Japanese semi-governmental “Asia Women's Fund” was set up for atonement in the form of material compensation and to provide each surviving comfort woman with an unofficial signed apology from the prime minister. Because of their unofficial nature, many comfort women have rejected these payments and continue to seek an official apology and compensation.

Following official admission of a military connection to the brothels in 1992, the debate has shifted to consideration of evidence and testimony of coercive recruitment of comfort women during the war. In a number of mock trials (without cross-examination), surviving women have testified of being subjected to coercion and rape.

The Japanese Debate Over Comfort Women

The popular conception of “comfort women” outside Japan is that all comfort women were kidnapped by Japanese soldiers to serve as sex slaves under direct order from the Japanese military or the government. This simplified picture misses certain important aspects of the issue. Military comfort women were part of the military brothel system which was not uniquely Japanese. As with any other military brothels, procurement was largely done through middlemen. The issue is extremely controversial in regard to the case of Korea.

From 1991 to 1992, the Asahi Shimbun, one of the major daily newspapers in Japan, ran a series about military comfort women. This is regarded as the start of the comfort women controversy in Japan, which coincided with the re-examination of other wartime atrocities such as the Nanking Massacre. Such re-examinations were prominent through out 1990s. In this series the Asahi Shimbun published excerpts of the book published in 1983 by Kiyosada Yosida, Watashi no Sensō Hanzai – Chōsenjin Renkō Kōsei Kiroku (My War Crime: The Record of the Forced Removal of Koreans), in which the author confesses to forcibly procuring women from Jeju Island in Korea under the direct order of the Japanese military. In 1992, the paper also published the discovery of documents in the archives of Japan's National Defense Agency indicating that the military was directly involved in selecting the agents who recruited these women into service.

That article implied that the document is a smoking gun, proving the government's complicty in the forcible kidnapping of women. The publication of the article was just five days before Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa paid a visit to South Korea. Miyazawa made a formal apology during that visit. However, the investigation by Hata Ikuhiko subsequently discovered that the entire Jeju Island episode documented in Yoshida's book to be fiction, which the author of the book later admitted. Moreover, the supposedly incriminating documents proving the military's involvement in selecting the agents in fact showed that the military issued such directives to prevent abuse, in response to reports of complaints from the colonial police force about the methods employed by these agents. And it was shown that some of these women were sold by their parents to these agents as bonded labour, a practice not uncommon at the time both in Japan and in Korea.

These revelations severely damaged the credibility of the movement advocating for comfort women in Japan – though subsequent research proved that Japanese soldiers in the frontline had in fact forced women to work at military brothels. Moreover, the existence of middlemen does not change the fact that many women were coerced or sold against their wills. However, the context in which such acts were carried out would change the nuance of the moral responsibility.

A common defense heard in Japan is that there is no document to show that Japanese military hierarchy did order those middlemen to procure comfort women by force, that the purpose of military brothel system was to prevent rape, and that the military issued the directive to select agents so that these agents would not get involved in illegal methods of procurement. Moreover, the existence of middlemen makes it difficult for ex-comfort women to pursue compensation claims. Prostitution and bonded labour were legal at the time and if the coercion was done by the middlemen much of blame, whether legal or moral, can be shifted to them.

Furthermore, it is difficult this long after the alleged crimes for those who claim to have been kidnapped by Japanese soldiers to prove their allegations. While it is easy to believe that such crimes took place, it is another thing entirely to prove in a court of law that any specific instance occurred. As is the case for the Japanese war guilt issue, focusing on the existence of middlemen allows those who wish to deny responsibility to deflect part of blame back to the Korean or Chinese if not to the actual victims themselves. Many of these agents were locals, not Japanese, and some comfort women were sold to middlemen by their parents for economic reasons. Some community leaders who provided comfort women under threat from Japanese army had to use tricks or coercion. Pointing to the complicity of locals allows those who wish to deny guilt to claim that Japan merely took advantage of what locals were already doing as an accepted practice at that period.

There is much debate over how much blame should be placed on the military hierarchy, or for that matter, the Japanese government. Though those who wish to deny official responsibility might admit that abuse at a local level might have occurred on an individual basis, it is common for them to blame the entire matter on mere failure of oversight, confused policy in regard to a "suspected" guerilla force, and a lack of resources at the front line. For example, former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone stated in his memoir published in 1978 that when he was a navy lieutenant he set up a comfort house for about 3000 of his troops. When criticised about this matter, he refused to admit any responsibility, insisting that he was never aware that the women were forced into service.

Military Brothels, Human Trafficking, and Sexual Slavery in Context

One criticism of the general reporting on the issue of comfort women in Western countries is that this reporting has subtly obscured the idea of the military brothel, making it appear that the concept of comfort women is uniquely Japanese. Military brothels are not at all unique, though the direct involvement of soldiers in procurement, as was sometimes the case in the Japanese military during World War II, is rare in the 20th century.

British, French and German forces have all utilised such institutions for the same reason the Japanese military did: to prevent STDs, to maintain the morale of the troops, and to allow soldiers to have sex near the front line. During the occupation of Japan, the U.S. army utilised military brothels set up by the Japanese government known as the Recreation and Amusement Association. Many Japanese women worked there under pressure because of economic hardship or coerced through the use of debt bondage. South Korea had a similar system during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. There were brothels for the exclusive use of U.S. soldiers inside certain camps in Vietnam War. Even U.N. peace keeping forces attract prostitution – there were increases in prostitutes in Cambodia and in Bosnia once U.N. forces moved in. There was one highly publicised case in which members of the U.N. peacekeeping force were accused of direct involvement in procurement of sex slaves for a local brothel in Bosnia. Setting up such an institution in an economically deprived area is bound to involve a degree of forced prostitution, but the use of agents for procurement and management of brothels has allowed the military to be shielded from the issue of sexual slavery and human trafficking.

References

Some recent work on the comfort women issue include:

* Tanaka, Yuki Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation, London, Routledge: 2002. ISBN 0415194016.

* Yoshimi, Yoshiaki Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II, Columbia University Press, 2001. (mentioned RAA too) ISBN 023112032X

* Molasky, Michael S. American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa, Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0415191947 ISBN 0415260442

* Wakabayasi, Bob Tadasii "Comfort Women: Beyond Litigious Feminism" in issue 58:2 of Monumenta Nipponica: A review of these books and a history and historiography of the issue, from a view critical of the above books.

Links

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_women

Constitution of 1889

This is a translation of the first constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1889.

CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN, 1889

Imperial Oath Sworn in the Sanctuary in the Imperial Palace (Tsuge-bumi)

We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government.

In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws formulated into express provisions of law, so that, on the one hand, Our Imperial posterity may possess an express guide for the course they are to follow, and that, on the other, Our subjects shall thereby be enabled to enjoy a wider range of action in giving Us their support, and that the observance of Our laws shall continue to the remotest ages of time. We will thereby to give greater firmness to the stability of Our country and to promote the welfare of all the people within the boundaries of Our dominions; and We now establish the Imperial House Law and the Constitution. These Laws come to only an exposition of grand precepts for the conduct of the government, bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors. That we have been so fortunate in Our reign, in keeping with the tendency of the times, as to accomplish this work, We owe to the glorious Spirits of the Imperial Founder of Our House and of Our other Imperial Ancestors.

We now reverently make Our prayer to Them and to Our Illustrious Father, and implore the help of Their Sacred Spirits, and make to Them solemn oath never at this time nor in the future to fail to be an example to our subjects in the observance of the Laws hereby established.

May the heavenly Spirits witness this Our solemn Oath.

Imperial Rescript on the Promulgation of the Constitution

Whereas We make it the joy and glory of Our heart to behold the prosperity of Our country, and the welfare of Our subjects, We do hereby, in virtue of the Supreme power We inherit from Our Imperial Ancestors, promulgate the present immutable fundamental law, for the sake of Our present subjects and their descendants.

The Imperial Founder of Our House and Our other Imperial ancestors, by the help and support of the forefathers of Our subjects, laid the foundation of Our Empire upon a basis, which is to last forever. That this brilliant achievement embellishes the annals of Our country, is due to the glorious virtues of Our Sacred Imperial ancestors, and to the loyalty and bravery of Our subjects, their love of their country and their public spirit. Considering that Our subjects are the descendants of the loyal and good subjects of Our Imperial Ancestors, We doubt not but that Our subjects will be guided by Our views, and will sympathize with all Our endeavors, and that, harmoniously cooperating together, they will share with Us Our hope of making manifest the glory of Our country, both at home and abroad, and of securing forever the stability of the work bequeathed to Us by Our Imperial Ancestors.

Preamble (or Edict) (Joyu)

Having, by virtue of the glories of Our Ancestors, ascended the throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal; desiring to promote the welfare of, and to give development to the moral and intellectual faculties of Our beloved subjects, the very same that have been favored with the benevolent care and affectionate vigilance of Our Ancestors; and hoping to maintain the prosperity of the State, in concert with Our people and with their support, We hereby promulgate, in pursuance of Our Imperial Rescript of the 12th day of the 10th month of the 14th year of Meiji, a fundamental law of the State, to exhibit the principles, by which We are guided in Our conduct, and to point out to what Our descendants and Our subjects and their descendants are forever to conform.

The right of sovereignty of the State, We have inherited from Our Ancestors, and We shall bequeath them to Our descendants. Neither We nor they shall in the future fail to wield them, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution hereby granted.

We now declare to respect and protect the security of the rights and of the property of Our people, and to secure to them the complete enjoyment of the same, within the extent of the provisions of the present Constitution and of the law.

The Imperial Diet shall first be convoked for the 23rd year of Meiji and the time of its opening shall be the date, when the present Constitution comes into force.

When in the future it may become necessary to amend any of the provisions of the present Constitution, We or Our successors shall assume the initiative right, and submit a project for the same to the Imperial Diet. The Imperial Diet shall pass its vote upon it, according to the conditions imposed by the present Constitution, and in no otherwise shall Our descendants or Our subjects be permitted to attempt any alteration thereof.

Our Ministers of State, on Our behalf, shall be held responsible for the carrying out of the present Constitution, and Our present and future subjects shall forever assume the duty of allegiance to the present Constitution.

I. THE EMPEROR

Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal.

Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable.

Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution.

Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed.

Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes, and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives.

Article 8. The Emperor, in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities, issues, when the Imperial Diet is not sitting, Imperial ordinances in the place of law.

(2) Such Imperial Ordinances are to be laid before the Imperial Diet at its next session, and when the Diet does not approve the said Ordinances, the Government shall declare them to be invalid for the future.

Article 9. The Emperor issues or causes to be issued, the Ordinances necessary for the carrying out of the laws, or for the maintenance of the public peace and order, and for the promotion of the welfare of the subjects. But no Ordinance shall in any way alter any of the existing laws.

Article 10. The Emperor determines the organization of the different branches of the administration, and salaries of all civil and military officers, and appoints and dismisses the same. Exceptions especially provided for in the present Constitution or in other laws, shall be in accordance with the respective provisions (bearing thereon).

Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy.

Article 12. The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy.

Article 13. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.

Article 14. The Emperor declares a state of siege.

(2) The conditions and effects of a state of siege shall be determined by law.

Article 15. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor.

Article 16. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and rehabilitation.

Article 17. A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law.

(2) The Regent shall exercise the powers appertaining to the Emperor in His name.

II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF SUBJECTS

Article 18. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese subject shall be determined by law.

Article 19. Japanese subjects may, according to qualifications determined in laws or ordinances, be appointed to civil or military or any other public offices equally.

Article 20. Japanese subjects are amenable to service in the Army or Navy, according to the provisions of law.

Article 21. Japanese subjects are amenable to the duty of paying taxes, according to the provisions of law.

Article 22. Japanese subjects shall have the liberty of abode and of changing the same within the limits of the law.

Article 23. No Japanese subject shall be arrested, detained, tried or punished, unless according to law.

Article 24. No Japanese subject shall be deprived of his right of being tried by the judges determined by law.

Article 25. Except in the cases provided for in the law, the house of no Japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent.

Article 26. Except in the cases mentioned in the law, the secrecy of the letters of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate.

Article 27. The right of property of every Japanese subject shall remain inviolate.

(2) Measures necessary to be taken for the public benefit shall be any provided for by law.

Article 28. Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to theirduties as subjects, enjoy freedom of religious belief.

Article 29. Japanese subjects shall, within the limits of law, enjoy the liberty of speech, writing, publication, public meetings and associations.

Article 30. Japanese subjects may present petitions, by observing the proper forms of respect, and by complying with the rules specially provided for the same.

Article 31. The provisions contained in the present Chapter shall not affect the exercises of the powers appertaining to the Emperor, in times of war or in cases of a national emergency.

Article 32. Each and every one of the provisions contained in the preceding Articles of the present Chapter, that are not inconflict with the laws or the rules and discipline of the Army and Navy, shall apply to the officers and men of the Army and of the Navy.

III. THE IMPERIAL DIET

Article 33. The Imperial Diet shall consist of two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives.

Article 34. The House of Peers shall, in accordance with the ordinance concerning the House of Peers, be composed of the members of the Imperial Family, of the orders of nobility, and of those who have been nominated thereto by the Emperor.

Article 35. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members elected by the people, according to the provisions of the law of Election.

Article 36. No one can at one and the same time be a Member of both Houses.

Article 37. Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 38. Both Houses shall vote upon projects of law submitted to it by the Government, and may respectively initiate projects of law.

Article 39. A Bill, which has been rejected by either the one or the other of the two Houses, shall not be brought in again during the same session.

Article 40. Both Houses can make representations to the Government, as to laws or upon any other subject. When, however, such representations are not accepted, they cannot be made a second time during the same session.

Article 41. The Imperial Diet shall be convoked every year.

Article 42. A session of the Imperial Diet shall last during three months. In case of necessity, the duration of a session may be prolonged by the Imperial Order.

Article 43. When urgent necessity arises, an extraordinary session may be convoked in addition to the ordinary one.

(2) The duration of an extraordinary session shall be determined by Imperial Order.

Article 44. The opening, closing, prolongation of session and prorogation of the Imperial Diet, shall be effected simultaneously for both Houses.

(2) In case the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, the House of Peers shall at the same time be prorogued.

Article 45. When the House of Representatives has been ordered to dissolve, Members shall be caused by Imperial Order to be newly elected, and the new House shall be convoked within five months from the day of dissolution.

Article 46. No debate can be opened and no vote can be taken in either House of the Imperial Diet, unless not less than one-third of the whole number of Members thereof is present.

Article 47. Votes shall be taken in both Houses by absolute majority. In the case of a tie vote, the President shall have the casting vote.

Article 48. The deliberations of both Houses shall be held in public. The deliberations may, however, upon demand of the Government or by resolution of the House, be held in secret sitting.

Article 49. Both Houses of the Imperial Diet may respectively present addresses to the Emperor.

Article 50. Both Houses may receive petitions presented by subjects.

Article 51. Both Houses may enact, besides what is provided for in the present Constitution and in the Law of the Houses, rules necessary for the management of their internal affairs.

Article 52. No Member of either House shall be held responsible outside the respective Houses, for any opinion uttered or for any vote given in the House. When, however, a Member himself has given publicity to his opinions by public speech, by documents in print or in writing, or by any other similar means, he shall, in the matter, be amenable to the general law.

Article 53. The Members of both Houses shall, during the session, be free from arrest, unless with the consent of the House, except in cases of flagrant delicts, or of offenses connected with a state of internal commotion or with a foreign trouble.

Article 54. The Ministers of State and the Delegates of the Government may, at any time, take seats and speak in either House.

IV. THE MINISTERS OF STATE AND THE PRIVY COUNCIL

Article 55. The respective Ministers of State shall give their advice to the Emperor, and be responsible for it.

(2) All Laws, Imperial Ordinances, and Imperial Rescripts of whatever kind, that relate to the affairs of the state, require the countersignature of a Minister of State.

Article 56. The Privy Councillors shall, in accordance with the provisions for the organization of the Privy Council, deliberate upon important matters of State when they have been consulted by the Emperor.

V. THE JUDICATURE

Article 57. The Judicature shall be exercised by the Courts of Law according to law, in the name of the Emperor.

(2) The organization of the Courts of Law shall be determined by law.

Article 58. The judges shall be appointed from among those, who possess proper qualifications according to law.

(2) No judge shall be deprived of his position, unless by way of criminal sentence or disciplinary punishment.

(3) Rules for disciplinary punishment shall be determined by law.

Article 59. Trials and judgments of a Court shall be conducted publicly. When, however, there exists any fear, that such publicity may be prejudicial to peace and order, or to the maintenance of public morality, the public trial may be suspended by provisions of law or by the decision of the Court of Law.

Article 60. All matters that fall within the competency of a special Court, shall be specially provided for by law.

Article 61. No suit at law, which relates to rights alleged to have been infringed by the illegal measures of the administrative authorities, and which shall come within the competency of the Court of Administrative Litigation specially established by law, shall be taken cognizance of by Court of Law.

VI. FINANCE

Article 62. The imposition of a new tax or the modification of the rates (of an existing one) shall be determined by law.

(2) However, all such administrative fees or other revenue having the nature of compensation shall not fall within the category of the above clause.

(3) The raising of national loans and the contracting of other liabilities to the charge of the National Treasury, except those that are provided in the Budget, shall require the consent of the Imperial Diet.

Article 63. The taxes levied at present shall, in so far as they are not remodelled by a new law, be collected according to the old system.

Article 64. The expenditure and revenue of the State require the consent of the Imperial Diet by means of an annual Budget.

(2) Any and all expenditures overpassing the appropriations set forth in the Titles and Paragraphs of the Budget, or that are not provided for in the Budget, shall subsequently require the approbation of the Imperial Diet.

Article 65. The Budget shall be first laid before the House of Representatives.

Article 66. The expenditures of the Imperial House shall be defrayed every year out of the National Treasury, according to the present fixed amount for the same, and shall not require the consent thereto of the Imperial Diet, except in case an increase thereof is found necessary.

Article 67. Those already fixed expenditures based by the Constitution upon the powers appertaining to the Emperor, and such expenditures as may have arisen by the effect of law, or that appertain to the legal obligations of the Government, shall be neither rejected nor reduced by the Imperial Diet, without the concurrence of the Government.

Article 68. In order to meet special requirements, the Government may ask the consent of the Imperial Diet to a certain amount as a Continuing Expenditure Fund, for a previously fixed number of years.

Article 69. In order to supply deficiencies, which are unavoidable, in the Budget, and to meet requirements unprovided for in the same, a Reserve Fund shall be provided in the Budget.

Article 70. When the Imperial Diet cannot be convoked, owing to the external or internal condition of the country, in case of urgent need for the maintenance of public safety, the Government may take all necessary financial measures, by means of an Imperial Ordinance.

(2) In the case mentioned in the preceding clause, the matter shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet at its next session, and its approbation shall be obtained thereto.

Article 71. When the Imperial Diet has not voted on the Budget, or when the Budget has not been brought into actual existence, the Government shall carry out the Budget of the preceding year.

Article 72. The final account of the expenditures and revenues of the State shall be verified and confirmed by the Board of Audit, and it shall be submitted by the Government to the Imperial Diet, together with the report of verification of the said board.

(2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall of determined by law separately.

VII. SUPPLEMENTARY RULES

Article 73. When it has become necessary in future to amend the provisions of the present Constitution, a project to the effect shall be submitted to the Imperial Diet by Imperial Order.

(2) In the above case, neither House can open the debate, unless not less than two-thirds of the whole number of Members are present, and no amendment can be passed, unless a majority of not less than two-thirds of the Members present is obtained.

Article 74. No modification of the Imperial House Law shall be required to be submitted to the deliberation of the Imperial Diet.

(2) No provision of the present Constitution can be modified by the Imperial House Law.

Article 75. No modification can be introduced into the Constitution, or into the Imperial House Law, during the time of a Regency.

Article 76. Existing legal enactments, such as laws, regulations, Ordinances, or by whatever names they may be called, shall, so far as they do not conflict with the present Constitution, continue in force.

(2) All existing contracts or orders, that entail obligations upon the Government, and that are connected with expenditure, shall come within the scope of Article 67.

Constitution of 1946

Japan is a constitutional monarchy. The current constitution was largely written by the Occupation authorities in 1945--1946. It replaced Japan's original constitution, which many people feel had flaws that made it unsuitable for a modern democracy. The original constitution was promulgated in 1889 (see page X.

THE CONSTITUTION OF JAPAN, 1946

Promulgated on November 3, 1946; Put into effect on May 3, 1947.

We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all constitutions, laws, ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith.

We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship, and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want.

We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations.

We, the Japanese people, pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources.

I. THE EMPEROR

Article 1. The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.

Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial House law passed by the Diet.

Article 3. The advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, and the Cabinet shall be responsible therefor.

Article 4. The Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in this Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government.

(2) The Emperor may delegate the performance of his acts in matters of state as may be provided by law.

Article 5. When, in accordance with the Imperial House law, a Regency is established, the Regent shall perform his acts in matter of state in the Emperor's name. In this case, paragraph one of the article will be applicable.

Article 6. The Emperor shall appoint the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet.

(2) The Emperor shall appoint the Chief Judge of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet.

Article 7. The Emperor, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, shall perform the following acts in makers of state on behalf of the people:

(i) Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties;

(ii) Convocation of the Diet;

(iii)Dissolution of the House of Representatives;

(iv) Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet;

(v) Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers;

(vi) Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights;

(vii)Awarding of honors;

(viii) Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law;

(ix) Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers;

(x) Performance of ceremonial functions.

Article 8. No property can be given to, or received by, the Imperial House, nor can any gifts be made therefrom, without the authorization of the Diet.

II. RENUNCIATION OF WAR

Article 9. Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a mean of settling international disputes.

(2) In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized.

CHAPTER III. RIGHTS ANO DUTIES OF THE PEOPLE

Article 10. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese national shall be determined by law.

Article 11. The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights.

Article 12. The freedoms and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare.

Article 13. All of the people shall be respected as individuals. Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs.

Article 14. All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin.

(2) Peers and peerage shall not be recognized.

(3) No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction, nor shall any such award be valid beyond the lifetime of the individual who now holds or hereafter may receive it.

Article 15. The people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them.

(2) All public officials are servants of the whole community and not of any group thereof.

(3) Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the election of public officials.

(4) In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated. A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for the choice he has made.

Article 16. Every person shall have the right of peaceful petition for the redress of damage, for the removal of public officials, for the enactment, repeal or amendment of law, ordinances or regulations and for other matters, nor shall any person be in any way discriminated against sponsoring such a petition.

Article 17. Every person may sue for redress as provided by law from the State or a public entity, in case he has suffered damage through illegal act of any public official.

Article 18. No person shall be held in bondage of any kind. Involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, is prohibited

Article 19. Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated.

Article 20. Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State nor exercise any political authority.

(2) No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious acts, celebration, rite or practice.

(3) The state and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any other religious activity.

Article 21. Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed.

(2) No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated.

Article 22. Every person shall have freedom to choose and change his residence and to choose his occupation to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare.

(2) Freedom of all persons to move to a foreign country and to divest themselves of their nationality shall be inviolate.

Article 23. Academic freedom is guaranteed.

Article 24. Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis.

(2) With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes.

Article 25. All people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living.

(2) In all spheres of life, the State shall use its endeavors for the promotion and extension of social welfare and security, and of public health.

Article 26. All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their ability, as provided by law.

(2) All people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary educations as provided for by law. Such compulsory education shall be free.

Article 27. All people shall have the right and the obligation to work.

(2) Standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law.

(3) Children shall not be exploited.

Article 28. The right of workers to organize and to bargain and act collectively is guaranteed.

Article 29. The right to own or to hold property is inviolable.

(2) Property rights shall be defined by law, in conformity with the public welfare.

(3) Private property may be taken for public use upon just compensation therefor.

Article 30. The people shall be liable to taxations as provided by law.

Article 31. No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any other criminal penalty be imposed, except according to procedure established by law.

Article 32. No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts.

Article 33. No person shall be apprehended except upon warrant issued by a competent judicial officer which specifies the offense with which the person is charged, unless he is apprehended, the offense being committed.

Article 34. No person shall be arrested or detained without being at once informed of the charges against him or without the immediate privilege of counsel; nor shall he be detained without adequate cause; and upon demand of any person such cause must be immediately shown in open court in his presence and the presence of his counsel.

Article 35. The right of all persons to be secure in their homes, papers and effects against entries, searches and seizures shall not be impaired except upon warrant issued for adequate cause and particularly describing the place to be searched and things to be seized, or except as provided by Article 33.

(2) Each search or seizure shall be made upon separate warrant Issued by a competent judicial officer.

Article 36. The infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel punishments are absolutely forbidden.

Article 39. In all criminal cases the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial tribunal.

(2) He shall be permitted full opportunity to examine all witnesses, and he shall have the right of compulsory process for obtaining witnesses on his behalf at public expense.

(3) At all times the accused shall have the assistance of competent counsel who shall, if the accused is unable to secure the same by his own efforts, be assigned to his use by the State.

Article 38. No person shall be compelled to testify against himself.

(2) Confession made under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged arrest or detention shall not be admitted in evidence.

(3) No person shall be convicted or punished in cases where the only proof against him is his own confession.

Article 39. No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he has been acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy.

Article 40. Any person, in case he is acquitted after he has been arrested or detained, may sue the State for redress as provided by law.

IV. THE DIET

Article 41. The Diet shall be the highest organ of state power, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State.

Article 42. The Diet shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors.

Article 43. Both Houses shall consist of elected members, representative of all the people.

(2) The number of the members of each House shall be fixed by law.

Article 44. The qualifications of members of both Houses and their electors shall be fixed by law. However, there shall be no discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income.

Article 45. The term of office of members of the House of Representatives shall be four years. However, the term shall be terminated before the full term is up in case the House of Representatives is dissolved.

Article 46. The term of office of members of the House of Councillors shall be six years, and election for half the members shall take place every three years.

Article 47. Electoral districts, method of voting and other matters pertaining to the method of election of members of both Houses shall be fixed by law.

Article 48. No person shall be permitted to be a member of both Houses simultaneously.

Article 49. Members of both Houses shall receive appropriate annual payment from the national treasury in accordance with law.

Article 50. Except in cases provided by law, members of both Houses shall be exempt from apprehension while the Diet is in session, and any members apprehended before the opening of the session shall be freed during the term of the session upon demand of the House.

Article 51. Members of both Houses shall not be held liable outside the House for speeches, debates or votes cast inside the House.

Article 52. An ordinary session of the Diet shall be convoked once per year.

Article 53. The Cabinet may determine to convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet. When a quarter or more of the total members of either house makes the demand, the Cabinet must determine on such convocation.

Article 54. When the House of Representatives is dissolved, there must be a general election of members of the House of Representatives within forty (40) days from the date of dissolution, and the Diet must be convoked within thirty (30) days from the date of the election.

(2) When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the House of Councillors is closed at the same time. However, the Cabinet may in time of national emergency convoke the House of Councillors in emergency session.

(3) Measures taken at such session as mentioned in the proviso of the preceding paragraph shall be provisional and shall become null and void unless agreed to by the House of Representatives within a period of ten (10) days after the opening of the next session of the Diet.

Article 55. Each House shall judge disputes related to qualifications of its members. However, in order to deny a seat to any member, it is necessary to pass a resolution by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.

Article 56. Business cannot be transacted in either House unless one third or more of total membership is present.

(2) All matters shall be decided, in each House, by a majority of those present, except as elsewhere provided in the Constitution, and in case of a tie, the presiding officer shall decide the issue.

Article 57. Deliberation in each House shall be public. However, a secret meeting may be held where a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor.

(2) Each House shall keep a record of proceedings. This record shall be published and given general circulation, excepting such parts of proceedings of secret session as may be deemed to require secrecy.

(3) Upon demand of one-fifth or more of the members present, votes of the members on any matter shall be recorded in the minutes.

Article 58. Each house shall select its own president and other officials.

(2) Each House shall establish its rules pertaining to meetings, proceedings and internal discipline, and may punish members for disorderly conduct. However, in order to expel a member, a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present must pass a resolution thereon.

Article 59. A bill becomes a law on passage by both Houses, except as otherwise provided by the Constitution.

(2) A bill which is passed by the House of Representatives, and upon which the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, becomes a law when passed a second time by the House of Representatives by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.

(3) The provision of the preceding paragraph does not preclude the House of Representatives from calling for the meeting of a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law.

(4) Failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within sixty (60) days after receipt of a bill passed by the House of Representatives, time in recess excepted, may be determined by the House of Representatives to constitute a rejection of the said bill by the House of Councillors.

Article 60. The Budget must first be submitted to the House of Representatives.

(2) Upon consideration of the budget, when the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, and when no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or in the case of failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within thirty (30) days, the period of recess excluded, after the receipt of the budget passed by the House of Representatives, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.

Article 61. The second paragraph of the preceding article applies also to the Diet approval required for the conclusion of treaties.

Article 62. Each House may conduct investigations in relation to government, and may demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records.

Article 63. The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State may, at any time, appear in either House for the purpose of speaking on bills, regardless of whether they are members of the House or not. They must appear when their presence is required in order to give answers or explanations.

Article 64. The Diet shall set up an impeachment court from among the members of both Houses for the purpose of trying judges against whom removal proceedings have been instituted.

(2) Matters relating to impeachment shall be provided by law.

V. THE CABINET

Article 65. Executive power shall be vested in the Cabinet.

Article 66. The Cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister, who shall be its head, and other Ministers of State, as provided for by law.

(2) The Prime Minister and other Minister of State must be civilians.

(3) The Cabinet, in the exercise of executive power, shall be collectively responsible to the Diet.

Article 67. The Prime Minister shall be designated from among the members of the Diet by a resolution of the Diet. This designation shall precede all other business.

(2) If the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors disagrees and if no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or the House of Councillors fails to make designation within ten (10) days, exclusive of the period of recess, after the House of Representatives has made designation, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.

Article 68. The Prime Minister shall appoint the Ministers of State. However, a majority of their number must be chosen from among the members of the Diet.

(2) The Prime Minister may remove the Ministers of State as he chooses.

Article 69. If the House of Representatives passes a non-confidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall resign en masse, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved with ten (10) days.

Article 70. When there is a vacancy in the post of Prime Minister, or upon the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of members of the House of Representatives, the Cabinet shall resign en masse.

Article 71. In the cases mentioned in the two preceding articles, the Cabinet shall continue its functions until the time when a new Prime Minister is appointed.

Article 72. The Prime Minister, representing the Cabinet, submits bills, reports on general national affairs and foreign relations to the Diet and exercises control and supervision over various administrative branches.

Article 73. The Cabinet, in addition to other general administrative functions, shall perform the following functions:

(i) Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state;

(ii) Manage foreign affairs;

(iii)Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or, depending on circumstances, subsequent approval of the Diet;

(iv) Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law;

(v) Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet;

(vi) Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law.

(vii)Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.

Article 74. All laws and cabinet orders shall be signed by the competent Minister of state and countersigned by the Prime Minister.

Article 75. The Ministers of state, during their tenure of office, shall not be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister. However, the right to take that action is not impaired hereby.

VI. JUDICIARY

Article 76. The whole judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as are established by law.

(2) No extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power.

(3) All judges shall be independent in the exercise of their conscience and shall be bound only by this Constitution and the laws.

Article 77. The Supreme Court is vested with the rule-making power under which it determines the rules of procedure and of practice, and of matters relating to attorneys, the internal discipline of the courts and the administration of judicial affairs.

(2) Public procurators shall be subject to the rule-making power of the Supreme Court.

(3) The Supreme Court may delegate the power to make rules for inferior courts to such courts.

Article 78. Judges shall not be removed except by public impeachment unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform official duties. No disciplinary action against judges shall be administered by any executive organ or agency.

Article 79. The Supreme Court shall consist of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be determined by law; all such judges excepting the Chief Judge shall be appointed by the Cabinet.

(2) The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall be reviewed by the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their appointment, and shall be reviewed again at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives after a lapse of ten (10) years, and in the same manner thereafter.

(3) In cases mentioned in the foregoing paragraph, when the majority of the voters favors the dismissal of a judge, he shall be dismissed.

(4) Matters pertaining to review shall be prescribed by law.

(5) The judges of the Supreme Court shall of retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.

(6) All such judges shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office.

Article 80. The judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court. All such judges shall hold office for a term of ten (10) years with privilege of reappointment, provided that they shall be retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.

(2) The judges of the inferior courts shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office.

Article 81. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act.

Article 82. Trials shall be conducted and judgment declared publicly.

(2) Where a court unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals, a trial may be conducted privately, but trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press or cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed in Chapter III of this Constitution are in question shall always be conducted publicly.

VII. FINANCE

Article 83. The power to administer national finances shall be exercised as the Diet shall determine.

Article 84. No new taxes shall be imposed or existing ones modified except by law or under such conditions as law may prescribe.

Article 85. No money shall be expended, nor shall the State obligate itself, except as authorized by the Diet.

Article 86. Cabinet shall prepare and submit to the Diet for its consideration and decision a budget for each fiscal year.

Article 87. In order to provide for unforeseen deficiencies in the budget, a reserve fund may be authorized by the Diet to be expended upon the responsibility of the Cabinet.

(2) The Cabinet must get subsequent approval of the Diet for all payments from the reserve fund.

Article 88. All property of the Imperial Household shall belong to the State. All expenses of the Imperial Household shall be appropriated by the Diet in the budget.

Article 89. No public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for the use, benefit or maintenance of any religious institution or association or for any charitable, educational benevolent enterprises not under the control of public authority.

Article 90. Final accounts of the expenditures and revenues of State shall be audited annually by a Board of Audit and submitted by the Cabinet to the Diet, together with the statement of audit, during the fiscal year immediately following the period covered.

(2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall determined by law.

Article 91. At regular intervals and at least annually the Cabinet shall report to the Diet and the people on the state of national finances.

VIII. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

Article 92. Regulations concerning organization and operations of local public entities shall be fixed by law in accordance with the principle of local autonomy.

Article 93. The local public entities shall establish assemblies as their deliberative organs, in accordance with law.

(2) The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the members of their assemblies, and such other local officials as may be determined by law shall be elected by direct popular vote within their several communities.

Article 94. Local entities shall have the right to manage their property, affairs and administration and to enact their own regulations within law.

Article 95. A special law, applicable to one local public entity, cannot be enacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of the voters of the local public entity concerned, obtained in accordance with law.

IX. AMENDMENTS

Article 96. Amendment to this Constitution shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify.

(2) Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an integral part of this Constitution.

X. SUPREME LAW

Article 97. The fundamental human rights by this Constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate.

Article 98. This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the nation and no law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government, or part thereof, contrary to the provisions hereof, shall have legal force or validity.

(2) The treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed.

Article 99. The Emperor or the Regent as well as Ministers of State, members of the Diet, judges, and all other public officials have the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution.

XI. SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS

Article 100. This Constitution shall be enforced as from the day when the period of six months will have elapsed counting from the day of its promulgation.

(2) The enactment of laws necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution the election of members of the House of Councillors and the procedure for the convocation of the Diet and other preparatory procedures for the enforcement of this Constitution may be executed before the day prescribed in the preceding paragraph.

Article 101. If the House of Councilors is not constituted before the effective date of this Constitution, the House of Representatives shall function as the Diet until such time as the House of Councilors shall be constituted.

Article 102. The term of office for half the members of the House of Councillors serving in the first term under this Constitution shall be three years. Members falling under this category shall be determined in accordance with law.

Article 103. The Ministers of State, members of the House of Representatives, and judges in office on the effective date of this Constitution, and all other public officials, who occupy positions corresponding to such positions as are recognized by this Constitution shall not forfeit their positions automatically on account of the enforcement of this Constitution unless otherwise specified by law. When, however, successors are elected or appointed under the provisions of this Constitution, they shall forfeit their positions as a matter of course.

See Also

Constitution of 1889 (pg. X),

Cryptology

The combined science of making and breaking codes, ciphers, and other methods of secret communication (hereafter refered to generally as codes, unless otherwise stated). The science of making codes is called “cryptography” and that of breaking them is called “cryptanalysis”.

There is not much cryptological history in Japan – prior to the twentieth century, only a few simple codes were used and there seems to have been no practice of cryptanalysis at all.

There seems to be almost no cryptology in Japan before the Warring States Period (senkokujidai), during which Uesugi Kenshin and Oda Nobunaga are believed to have used simple substitution ciphers. In the context of world cryptological history, this is very late. Julius Caesar reportedly used a substition cipher and even before that the Spartans of Greek were using a transposition cipher with a wooden stick as the key. Thus people in the Mediterranean had used both major ciphers systems (transposition and substitution) over 1,500 years before Uesugi was born.

Little is known about what steps the Meiji government took to secure their communications. From the Taishō Period, however, there is a bit more information. It is not until the Shōwa Period, however, that the Imperial Japanese Army decides to actively improve its cryptological abilities.

Superficially, they were successful. In reality, they were improving their abilities in the old-fashioned, pre-First World War, traditional cryptology. Unfortunately, the enemy they were fighting in China from the mid-1930s was also using traditional cryptological systems. This likely gave the Army the impression that their training was worthwhile. Unfortunately, the skills the Army honed in China would be of limited assistance in the Second World War, when Japan faced several enemies, all of whom were soon at the forefront of modern cryptology.

Japanese Cryptology From the 1500s to Meiji

Senkokujidai Daimyō

The cipher system that Uesugi used is basically a simple substitution usually known in English as a Polybius square or “checkerboard.” The i-ro-ha alphabet contains forty-eight letters, so a seven-by-seven square is used, with one of the cells left blank. The rows and columns are labeled with a number or a letter. In Table 8, the numbers start in the top left, as does the i-ro-ha alphabet. In practice these could start in any corner.


1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

i

ro

ha

ni

ho

he

to

2

chi

ri

nu

ru

wo

wa

ka

3

yo

ta

re

so

tsu

ne

na

4

ra

mu

u

i1

no

o

ku

5

ya

ma

ke

fu

ko

e

te

6

a

sa

ki

yu

me

mi

shi

7

e

hi

mo

se

su

n


Table 8 i-ro-ha Alphabet, 1-7 Checkerboard Cipher

To encipher, find the plaintext letter in the square and replace it with the number of that row and column. So using the square above, kougeki becomes 55 43 53 63 or 55 34 35 36 if the correspondents decided ahead of time on column-row order. The problem of what to do in the case of letters such as “ga,” “de,” and “pe” that do not appear in the i-ro-ha alphabet is avoided by using the base form of the letter instead – as above where “kougeki” becomes “koukeki.''2 Technically, this is a serious flaw because some messages may have two or more equally valid decipherments. To avoid this the encipherer may have had to rephrase messages.

The column and row headers do not have to be numbers. One common variation is to use letters. This was common in European cryptography and is found in the Uesugi cipher as well. However, the Japanese cipher had a twist that never seems to have been used in the West; using a the last 14 letters of a waka poem to fill in the row and column headers. Table 9 is from page 162 of [takagawa_2003] and gives an example of this, using “tsurenakumieshiakinoyufukure.''

This system of using a “checkerboard” to convert an alphabet into numbers or letters was described by Polybius over 2000 years ago. There are three main advantages to this system. First, converting letters into numbers allows for various mathematical transformations which are not possible or not as easy with letters – super-enciphering for example. Second, the checkerboard system reduces the total number of characters. Whether converting to numbers or letters, the Polybius square reduces 25 English letters3 to five characters. Uesugi's square reduces to seven. This reduction makes crytanalysis slightly more difficult than simple one-to-one substitution. Another benefit of the reduction in the number of letters is that it reduces the chance of error in communicating the message. The letters of the German ADGFX system in World War I were chosen because in morse code they are quite distinct and thus it was unlikely that an error in the morse code transmission would accidently turn one letter into another. This would have been important for a sengoku daimyō, for instance, if he experimented with sending coded messages over long distances by torches, flags, poles, or similar system.

re

ku

fu

yu

no

ki

a


e

a

ya

ra

yo

chi

i

tsu

hi

sa

ma

mu

ta

ri

ro

re

mo

ki

ke

u

re

nu

ha

na

se

yu

fu

i

so

ru

ni

ku

su

me

ko

no

tsu

wo

ho

mi

n

mi

e

o

ne

wa

he

e


shi

te

ku

na

ka

to

shi

Table 9 Checkerboard Cipher Using Waka Poem

Finally, although the checkerboard system doubles the length of messages, breaking each plaintext letter into two ciphertext letters allows for separate transformations on each of the halves. However, this does not seem to have been used much in American or European cryptology and Japanese cryptologists apparently did not use it at all.

It is not known how or even if Uesugi actually used the seven-by-seven checkerboard system. The scarcity of evidence makes it impossible to draw any firm conclusions but tentatively it seems that senkoku period daimyō did not have much use for cryptology. Of course it is possible that they did have their “black chambers” and that those chambers were shrouded in such secrecy that no hint of their existence escaped. This seems unlikely however. Several daimyō compiled codes of conduct or books of advice on governing for their offspring. Had cryptology been an important factor in the success of such men, they might be expected to pass that advantage along to their successor. The fact that they did not do so, in writing at least, does not prove anything but, in light of the other evidence – and lack of it – does make the existence of black chambers of the European sort seem unlikely.

(Did messengers carry the plaintext on paper or did they memorize it?)

The history of cryptology in Japan shows two things. First, the fact that substitution ciphers existed makes the failure of the Japanese to improve on the substitution cipher or to invent the transposition cipher much harder to explain. Second, the lack of a strong cryptographic tradition suggests – almost requires – a correspondingly weak cryptanalytic tradition. In fact there seems to be no cryptanalysis in Japanese history before the late 1800s.

The Bakumatsu and Early Meiji Periods

TBA

World War I As Turning Point

David Kahn identifies World War I as a major turning point for institutional cryptology. Before the war, breaking codes was an individual endeavor – one person wresting with the messages until one of them broke. After the war, successful cryptology against major nation states required large-scale organization.

Japanese cryptology does not seem to have been affected at all by the Great War. The government continued using insecure codes of the sort they had been using since the Meiji Restoration. As a result, in 1921 Japanese diplomacy suffered a major defeat at the Washington Naval Conference. Weak codes were the primary cause of that defeat.

The American “Black Chamber” and the Two-Letter Code

The American “Black Chamber” under Herbert O. Yardley broke Japanese diplomatic codes in 1919 – less than a year after starting operations – and the Black Chamber cryptanalysts were still reading Japanese diplomatic traffic in 1921 when the Washington Naval Conference took place. Thanks to Yardley's book The American Black Chamber, the failure of Japanese cryptography at the Conference is well known. Yardley's book gives a valuable look into the quality of the codes employed by the Japanese government in the years leading up to, and during, the Conference and thus is worth looking at in some detail.

Judging from Yardley's description of the codes he and his cryptanalysts broke, Japanese codes in 1919 were weak and barely deserved to be called “codes”. He might have exaggerated the difficulty of breaking the Japanese codes – British codebreakers thought Japanese codes at that time were so weak you almost didn't need a cryptanalyst.4

Analysis of the Two-Letter Code

The two-letter code Japanese diplomats were using in 1919 consisted of two English-letter groups. This allows for a maximum of 676 (26*26) groups. That is far too small for a diplomatic code in 1819 much less 1919. Worse, the Japanese cryptographers did not use all of the available groups because Yardley says that the groups were either vowel-consonant or consonant-vowel, with “y” counting as both. If Yardley is correct about this, it means that the Japanese cryptographers limited themselves to only 252 of the 676 possible groups.5 After using anywhere from 54 to 100 groups for the kana and ten groups for the numbers zero to nine, there were at most 188 unassigned code groups remaining.

Yardley made his original break into the code by realizing that wi ub po mo il re re os ok bo was a i ru ra n do do ku ri tsu (Ireland independence).6 The doubled re re suggests the do do of airurando dokuritsu. This guess is confirmed when he discovers that the recovered groups re ub bo work elsewhere for do i tsu (Germany).

The initial break into the code is further confirmed when as fy ok makes sense as o wa ri (stop). This is exactly how one breaks a simple substitution cipher --- letter frequencies and repetitions in the text suggest possible plaintext letters. The cryptanalyst plugs in those letters and sees what yields meaningful text and what does not. Meaningful text suggests new letters to try and the cryptanalyst starts the cycle over again.

As can be seen from the description of Yardley's original break into the code, groups were assigned to kana like “do” and “bo” which in Japanese are not part of the regular alphabet but are created from other kana by adding pronunciation marks. Providing for these non-alphabet kana would require at least another 25 and possibly as many as 60 more code groups – hence the range given above for code groups for the kana – leaving only about 150 groups for words, phrases, and names. French cryptanalysts were making and breaking bigger, better codes in the 1700s.7 One suspects the Japanese language gave Yardley more trouble than the code itself did.

Thus the Japanese diplomatic code in use in 1919 was extremely weak and fundamentally flawed: a diplomatic code that does not contain code groups for common geopolitical names and phrases but requires them to be spelled out cannot be considered strong. Spelling out “stop” is further evidence that the code was not well designed. Even if the Japanese cryptographers devoted their 188 groups to the 188 most common phrases, the fact that they only had 188 groups to work with meant that most of their encoded messages would actually be simple-substitution enciphered messages of the sort that people had been solving for hundreds of years.

Code Improvements in the Nineteen Twenties and Thirties

According to Yardley, the Japanese codes his Black Chamber broke in 1919 were improved by a Polish cipher expert about a year later. His exact words are [italics in original]:8

Now the Japanese had no intention of permitting us to rest on our laurels, for from 1919 until the spring of 1920 they introduced eleven different codes.

We learned that they had employed a Polish cipher expert to revise their code and cipher systems. It took all our skill to break the new codes that this man produced, but by now we had developed a technique for the solution of Japanese codes that could read anything. Theoretically the Japanese codes were now more scientifically constructed; practically they were easier to solve than the first code, although some of them contained as many as twenty-five thousand kana, syllables and words.

The Polish cryptographer seemed to specialize on army codes, for the Japanese Military Attaché's codes suddenly became more difficult than those of any other branch of the Japanese Government.

Yardley was right about a Polish expert visiting Japan but he was mistaken about the timing. The Japanese army did bring in a Polish expert, Jan Kowalefsky, but he did not arrive in Japan until September of 1924. If Japanese codes improved significantly between 1919 and 1924, as Yardley claims, the improvements were the work of Japanese cryptologists.

An interesting possibility, which is ripe for further research, is that Japanese cryptologists studied one or more of the books on codes and ciphers that were occasionally published in Europe and America. For example, Parker Hitt's 1916 book Manual for the Solution of Military Ciphers was hugely popular, selling around 16,000 copies in America. Also, Japanese military attachés might have been aware that Winston Churchill, in his 1923 The World Crisis, admitted that Britain had read German naval messages during World War I.

It is possible that Yardley is simply wrong and Japanese codes did not improve significantly between 1919 and 1924. Kahn found that one improvement Yardley mentions – three letter code groups mixed in with two letter groups – was not actually present in the Japanese telegram that Yardley claimed it was.9

Japanese cryptographers supposedly improved their codes through sectioning – breaking the message into parts and rearranging them prior to encoding. This buries stereotypical openings and closings, which makes it harder for cryptanalysts to make initial breaks into a code by guessing at probable words. The technique is known as bisecting, trisecting, tetrasecting, etc. depending on how many pieces the text is broken into. Sectioning was not a new or revolutionary technique in the 1910s. [Although proof of this would be nice.]

If, as Yardley claims, some Japanese codes did have as many as 25,000 code groups at the time of the Washington Naval Conference, it would indicate a healthy appreciation of cryptological realities. Cryptographers have long known that bigger codes are better – all else being equal, a 25,000 group code is stronger than a 2,500 group code. In fact, many commercial code books as far back as the 1850s had 50,000 groups – but government bean counters are often reluctant to pay for the production of large codebooks. Thus accountants limited the size and thus strength of government and military codes for many years. To be fair, the secure production, storage, and distribution of codebooks is not easy nor is it cheap.

However, it seems unlikely that the Japanese government was using codebooks with 25,000 groups in the early 1920s. Jumping from the weak code used for the Washington Naval Conference to a book code of 25,000 in just a few years seems too fast, especially without some external indication that there codes had been compromised. Further, as shown below, even in 1926 the Army's top cryptologist was developing a cipher system that had only about 2,500 groups and those were actually just 10 charts of about 250 groups each.

Thus, the likely situation between the Washington Naval Conference an the mid-1920s is not that of a Polish officer helping to make Japanese codes much more secure. Rather, Japanese cryptographers were working to bring their codes up to the level of other major governments.

The Polish cipher expert, Jan Kowalefsky, might not have helped improve Japanese codes before the Washington Naval Conference but he did have a strong influence on Japanese cryptography between the conference and World War II. He trained what seems to be the first generation of professional Japanese cryptographers.

Jan Kowalefsky

Japanese authors have identified two events that influenced the Japanese army's decision to invite a foreigner to improve their cryptology.

The first was an incident during the Siberian Intervention. The Japanese army came into possession of some Soviet diplomatic correspondence, but their cryptanalysts were unable decipher the messages. Someone suggested asking the Polish military to try cryptanalyzing them. It took the Poles less than a week to break the code and read the messages.10

The second event also involved a failure to decipher intercepts. Starting in 1923, the Army began intercepting European and American diplomatic radio communications. Interception was difficult but the task of deciphering intercepted messages proved too much for the Army cryptanalysts.11

These two failures convinced the leaders of the Japanese army that they needed some outside help and for geopolitical reasons, they decided to turn to the Polish military. Poland had fought the Soviet Union in 1920 and the Japanese believed the Poles would be receptive to the idea of teaching someone on the Soviet Union's opposite flank how to read Soviet codes.

Learning from Warsaw and Then in Warsaw

The Japanese Army could not have asked for more distinguished teachers. Polish cryptanalysts would later break early versions of the German Enigma machine in 1932 and their work jump-started the French and British efforts to break later, more complicated, Enigma machines. In the 1920s and 1930s it is accurate to say that Polish cryptanalysts were some of the best in the world.

The arrangements were made and on 7 September 1924, Captain Jan Kowalefsky arrived in Yokohama.12 Kowalefsky taught a three month joint Army-Navy course13 to at least seven officers: four from the Army and three from the Navy.14

When the course finished, someone suggested that the novice cryptologists get some practical experience working with the Polish cryptologists in Poland.15 The Japanese students would go to Poland with their teacher. Arrangements were made and a study-abroad program of sorts was started. Five officers left for Poland with Kowalefsky late in 1924 (Taishō 13).16 They spent a year working in the Polish Army's Bureau of Ciphers before returning to Japan and taking up positions in the Japanese Army Cipher Department.17

Takagawa and Hiyama both assert that each year for about the next fourteen (until Shōwa 14) years, two Japanese Army officers traveled to Warsaw for a year of cryptological training.18 Neither Smith nor Budiansky mentions Kowalefsky or anything about Japanese officers studying in Poland. Yardley mentions the “Polish expert” working for the Army but gets the timing wrong. In English, only Kahn actually gives this expert a name and provides some more details.

Discrepencies

Interestingly, Kahn writes that Kowalefsky had been in Japan from about 1920, when he was supposedly helping improve Japanese codes, and was still there in 1925 to teach at a new Navy code school. That is, Kahn has Kowalefsky working for the Navy, not the Army. Japanese sources make it clear that both Army and Navy officers attended Kowalefsky's three month course, so some confusion is possible. However, Yardley wrote, correctly, that Kowalefsky worked for the Army but was wrong about the year since he claimed that the Polish expert had arrived in 1920. Yardley's error might explain why Kahn had Kowalefsky arriving in the wrong year but nothing in Yardley suggests that Kowalefsky ever worked for the Navy.

Although they do mention Kowalefsky (if not by name) neither Kahn nor Yardley mentions anything about Japanese cryptologists training in Poland or even Kowalefsky returning home. Thus, probably the most widely read English books on cryptological history are possibly missing a large and important part of the development of professional cryptology in Japan – if the Japanese sources are correct. If the Japanese sources for this history can be confirmed, it would be an important addition to the understanding of Japanese cryptology leading up to World War II. Polish cryptanalysts were very good and if they tutored the Japanese for almost fifteen years, it makes the Japanese failure to break most of the Allied codes during the war much more interesting.

The Two-Letter, Ten-Chart Code

Hyakutake Harukichi was among the first group of Japanese officers to study in Poland and on his return was made the chief of the code section of the third department of the army general staff. This was in 1926. Naturally enough, one of his first concerns was strengthening Army codes. He started by designing a new system to replace a four-letter code used by military attachés that had been in use since around 1918. The replacement was the two-letter, ten-chart code that Yardley mentions but mistakenly attributes to Kowalefsky in about 1920.19 Yardley gives the following description of Hyakutake's new system and its effectiveness:20 ZZZ

This new system was elaborate and required ten different codes. The Japanese would first encode a few words of their message in one code, then by the use of an ``indicator'' jump to another code and encode a few words, then to still another code, until all ten had been used in the encoding of a single message.

Messages encoded in this manner produced a most puzzling problem, but after several months of careful analysis, I discovered the fact that the messages were encoded in ten different systems. Having made this discovery, I quickly identified all the ``indicators.'' From this point on it was not difficult to arrive at a solution.

Yardley also describes the Japanese system of sectioning their messages but does not make it clear if this applies to the two-letter, ten-chart code. Takagawa's description of Hyakutake's code does not mention any sectioning but otherwise closely matches Yardley's account.\footnote{Takagawa p. 178-180} It is possible then that sectioning was not a part of Hyakutake's new system. Which code systems involved sectioning and when the systems were used is not clear. Interestingly, Michael Smith mentions in \booktitle{The Emperor's Codes} that British codebreakers were surprised by the appearance of sectioning in Japanese codes around 1937.\footnote{Smith, p. 55} The British had been reading some Japanese codes since at least as far back as the Washington Naval Conference. If they did not see sectioning in Army codes until 1937, in which code did Yardley see sectioning during his time at America's Black Chamber? Further research is necessary to answer that question.

It is clear from Yardley's description that Hyakutake's new system was not very effective. The system used 10 charts, each with 26 rows and columns labeled from \textsc{a} to \textsc{z}. This gives 626 two-letter code groups. Most words and phrases will not be in the code and must be spelled out in kana. In this respect it is similar to, but larger than, the first Japanese code that Yardley broke in 1919. The difference is that this time however there were ten codes instead of just one.

Basically, Hyakutake created a poly-code system where the code changes every few words. This is just a code version of a polyalphabetic substitution cipher. Polyalphabetic ciphers use several different enciphering alphabets and change between them at some interval, usually after every letter. The strength of a polyalphabetic cipher comes from how many alphabets it uses to encipher, how often it switches between them, and how it switches between them (at random or following some pattern for example). The Vigenere is probably the most famous example of a polyalphabetic substitution cipher.\footnote{Kahn, p. 146--149} The famous cipher machines of World War II encipher in a polyalphabetic system. Their strength came from the enormous number of well-mixed alphabets that they used and the fairly random way of switching between them.

With a bit of luck, experienced cryptanalysts have been able to break polyalphabetic ciphers for centuries. From the late 1800s they did not even need luck --- Auguste Kerckhoffs published a general solution for polyalphabetic ciphers in 1883 in his book \booktitle{La Cryptographie militaire}.\footnote{Kahn, p. 233}

So although Hyakutake's new code system was original,\footnote{I cannot find any references to any other system of this nature.} the fundamental idea underlying the system was well known, as were its weaknesses. With only 626 code groups, it is more cipher than code. As mentioned above, the ten different code charts just make it a polyalphabetic cipher --- one with only ten ``alphabets.'' Methods like Kerckhoffs' superimposition\footnote{Kahn, p. 236--238} can be used to convert several polyalphabetically encoded messages into ten monoalphabetically encoded message chucks. Chunks which are very easily solved. It is not surprising that the members of Yardley's Black Chamber broke the code in a few months.

The use of ten charts may had been an illusory complication --- rather than improve the security of the code, it probably made the code weaker. If, instead of ten different code groups for 626 terms, Hyakutake had used the ten charts (with slight modification to make each group unique) to provide code groups for closer to six thousand terms, the code would have been much stronger.

Including more terms means that fewer have to be spelled out in kana --- which is the whole point of using a code. Further, the reduction in duplication allows more flexibility in assigning homophones. Instead of ten groups for each letter, word, or phrase, each could receive homophones based on its frequency of occurrence. For example, the cryptographer can assign an appropriately large number of homophones to high-frequency letters and words like ``n,'' ``shi,'' and ``owari'' and only one or two code groups to lower frequency elements.

Likewise, if code groups were used to indicate a switch to a new chart, this could also have weakened the code unnecessarily. In fact, Yardley specifically mentions it as making the codes easier to cryptanalyze. Generally speaking, substitution systems switch alphabets as often as possibly because that provides the best security. Their strength lies in how many alphabets they use and how randomly they switch between them.

So switching charts after every couple of words is not as secure as switching after every word. Also important for security is how the cryptographer switches between the charts. If Hyakutake's system required the code clerk to switch codes charts pseudo-randomly, that would provide more security than requiring a set sequence of changes. This is more important if the charts are derived from one another in some predictable manner. If, for example, the plaintext \texttt{battle engaged} is \textsc{aa} on chart one, \textsc{ab} on chart 2, and \textsc{ac} on chart 3, then switching between the charts in order will pose much less difficulty for the cryptanalyst than using the charts in a more random order.

Regular polyalphabetic substitution ciphers often rely on code words to determine alphabet changes. Each letters of the code work references a different alphabet. With the ten charts of Hyakutake's system, a code number would be easy to use for pseudo-random changes --- ``301934859762'' means encode the first word or phrase with the third table, the second word or phrase with the tenth (zeroth) table, etc. The thirteenth word or phrase would be encoded with the third table again. Of course to give maximum security this code number needs to be changed frequently.

Unfortunately, there is no information on how tables were changed except for Yardley's vague ``until all ten had been used in the encoding of a single message,'' quoted above.\footnote{Yardley, p. 184} This unfortunately says nothing of the order the charts are used in.

Hara Hisashi's Pseudo-Random Number Code

Hara Hisashi became head of the code section of the Seventh Division sometime after 1932 and was later transfered to the Third Section of the Army General Staff.\footnote{Takagawa, p. 180} Sometime between then and 1940, Hara devised a system that used a pseudo-random number additive to superencipher the three number code the Army already had in service.

Neither Takagawa nor Hiyama provide details about when this three-number code system was adopted for Army communications. A three-number code has a maximum of $10^3$, or 1000 groups --- which is still too small for a strategic code and a far cry from the 25,000 that Yardley claims some Japanese codes had in the 1920s. However, it was a two-part code --- an important improvement.

Two-Part Codes

Code books contain two lists --- one of code groups and one of plaintext letters, words, and phrases. Someone encoding a message looks up the words in the plaintext list and substitutes the corresponding code group. Obviously it is important for that person's sanity that the plaintext be in some sort of order so words can be looked up easily. Since the system is similar for decoding --- look up the code group and substitute the plaintext --- it is equally important to have the code groups in order as well. With a one-part code, both lists are in alphabetical (or numerical) order. This means that you can encode and decode using the same book.

It also makes it easier for the enemy to break the code because once they realize they are dealing with a one-part code, they can use known groups to draw conclusions about unknown groups. For example, if the enemy knows that \textsc{aabbc} is \texttt{Antwerp} and \textsc{aabbz} is \texttt{available}, they will know that \textsc{aabbm} cannot be \texttt{Tokyo}.

A two-part code mixes the lists, making the code stronger by avoiding the problem described above. The drawback is that you now need two books. One, for encoding, has the plaintext in order to make encoding easy and the other, for decoding, has the code groups in order. Hence the name ``two-part'' code. The increase in security usually outweighs the increase in size and extra security concerns.

Antoine Rossignol invented the two-part code around 1650 or so.\footnote{Kahn, p. 160--161} The idea could hardly be considered new or secret by the 1900s, so again it is surprising to see Japanese cryptographers taking so long to begin using a common cryptographic method.

Random Numbers

The ``one-time pad'' system is only cipher system that is totally secure. It uses random numbers to encode the plaintext. If the numbers are truly random and the encoder never reuses those numbers, the encoded message cannot be broken. Fortunately for cryptologists, random numbers are very difficult to come up with and creating, distributing, and managing pads for more than a handful of correspondents is beyond the capabilities of even most governments.

Using random numbers for cryptography was first done around 1917 for securing teletype communications. It proved unfeasible for the reasons mentioned above. By the mid-1920s however, the German government was using one-time pads for diplomatic correspondence.\footnote{Kahn, p. 402--403} They had learned their lessons from World War I and were determined not to let it happen again.

Hara devised a system that used random numbers to superencipher Japanese army codes. Possibly because of the logistical difficulties inherent in the one-time pad system, Hara's system used tables of pseudo-random numbers. The encipherer had to indicate where in the table he (or much less likely at the time, she) did this by hiding the row and column headers from the table in the message.

This system is not new. Diplomats and armies started superenciphering with additives sometime during or soon after the First World War and by the 1920s it was common. German diplomats in Paris were using, shortly after the First World War, a codebook of 100,000 groups superenciphered \emph{twice} from a book of 60,000 additive groups!\footnote{Budiansky, p. 55} It would be very surprising if after five to ten years of training with the Poles, Japanese Army cryptologists were not already familiar with superenciphering with additive tables.

Superencipherment is fairly strong. It can be, and was, broken, but it is very hard to do. With the exception of the one-time pad, which will keep its secrets until the end of time, any code or cipher can be broken. All that is required is sufficient material. All that can be expected of a code or cipher system is that by the time the enemy breaks it, the information in the message is no longer useful. This is just a cryptographic fact of life.

Hara's pseudo-random code system, like every additive system other than the one-time pad, can be broken. Eventually someone, somewhere will use overlapping parts of the additive charts. The first thing the cryptanalyst does is identify where in the message the starting point of the chart (the ``indicator'') is hidden --- this allows the messages that are enciphered with the same sections of the number charts to be lined up and the additives stripped off.\footnote{Budiansky, p. 78--81, has an interesting example of the process.}

Hara's Pseudo-Random Number Generator

Perhaps realizing the gap between theory and practice, Hara devised a small system for generating pseudo-random numbers that could be used by units whose charts were outdated and which could not be supplied with new ones. This suggests that the cryptographers had real world experience with cryptology under battlefield conditions.

The system is simple, as it no doubt was intended to be. It requires a small chart of random numbers. Instead of using the numbers as additives, the encipherer uses two or more of them to create a much longer number. That number is then used to superencipher the message. Figure 3 shows how this is done; the numbers are taken from Takagawa.\footnote{Takagawa, p. 181}

831728

8

3

1

7

2

8

8

3

1

7

2

8

8

3

1

96837

9

6

8

3

7

9

6

8

3

7

9

6

8

3

7

Result

7

9

9

0

9

7

4

1

4

4

1

4

6

6

8

Table 10Creating a Pseudo-Random Number from Two Other Numbers

When the numbers are added, any tens units are dropped. Thus 8 + 9 = 7. If the encipherer uses a six-digit number and a five-digit number, the resulting pseudo-random number will repeat after 30 digits. Hiyama gives an example of this system using a seven-digit and a five-digit number, which repeats after 35 digits.\footnote{Hiyama, p. 242}

This pseudo-random number system is much weaker than the usual system of superencipherment but as an emergency backup system it would have been adequate and certainly better than using a transposition or simple substitution cipher. Like any other cipher system, breaking a pseudo-random number system just requires a sufficient amount of intercepted ciphertext.

The State of Japanese Army Cryptology around 1941

Hyakutake's two-letter, ten-chart system was exceedingly weak. It might have made a decent tactical field code --- it is simple to use, requires only the paper charts and a pencil, and is easily changed. As a code for military attachés around the globe, however, Hyakutake's system was much too weak. It was basically a slightly improved version of the Foreign Ministry's two-letter code that Yardley broke in 1919 and possibly not as strong as the four-letter code it replaced.

Kahn, Smith, and Budiansky all make it clear that superenciphering and using pseudo-random additives were nothing new even in the 1920's --- Kahn says that enciphered code was ``the customary method for diplomatic communications.''\footnote{Kahn, p. 402} A system using random numbers to superencipher messages was not revolutionary in the 1930s.

Thus, Hara's system was not new and does not seem to have been any better than similar systems long in use in other countries. Nevertheless, devising and implementing the Army's system was an important accomplishment and it is possible that Hara was responsible for it. An interesting topic for further research would be why this system was chosen instead of machine ciphers. Was the random number system chosen for non-cryptological reasons? Were the Army cryptanalysts good enough to understand that random numbers were more secure, when used correctly, than cipher machines?

There were several books available that hint at ways to break cipher machines. William Friedman's \booktitle{The Index of Coincidence and Its Applications to Cryptography} was revolutionary; the addition of advanced mathematical, especially statistical, methods to the cryptological toolkit made traditional cryptographic systems obsolete and machine systems breakable.\footnote{Kahn p. 376} So it is possible that the Japanese cryptanalysts knew that cipher machines were, in theory at least, breakable.

The Polish military realized early on that machine enciphering would change the science of cryptology and from 1929 employed mathematicians to work on cryptanalysis. However, as the goal of Japanese-Polish cryptographic cooperation was to train the Japanese side to break Russian codes, there would have been no need for the Polish cryptologists to reveal methods of breaking machines the Russians were not using. Teaching the Japanese the latest and greatest methods would not be of any use against Russian codes and would only risk the Germans finding out and changing their codes. The Poles thus had a strong incentive to teach the Japanese just as much as they needed to know.

The Japanese army was aware of machine systems; at the Hague in 1926, a Japanese military attaché saw a demonstration of the Model B1 cipher machine from Aktiebolaget Cryptograph.\footnote{Kahn, p. 425} In fact, in the early 1930s, both the Japanese Navy and the Foreign Ministry switched to machine systems for their most secret messages. The fact that those systems seem to have been developed in Japan suggests that there were knowledgeable cryptographers in Japan. Which suggests that perhaps there were other, non-cryptographic reasons why the Army continued to use chart and book based systems. Perhaps further research into the cultural and institutional aspects of inter-war cryptology in Japan could uncover those reasons.

Conclusions

Several curious facts stand out in this cursory overview of Japanese cryptological history. One is that the Japanese government did not bring in an outside expert to help with their codes until 1924. Considering all the other \jpnterm{gaikokujin oyatoi} (hired foreigners) brought in to assist with ``modernization'' in the Meiji Period, it is striking that such an important field as cryptology would be ignored.

This suggests that the Japanese government in the first decades of the twentieth century did not really understand the importance of cryptology for protecting communications. Such an attitude would hardly have been limited to Japan in the 1910s or 1920s --- despite their success at the Washington Naval Conference, and later public chastisement by Yardley, American codes remained weak right up to the early 1940s. However, even America, thanks to its ties to Europe, had a cryptological history and a reserve of talented people who understood the problems and the solutions. Japan does not seem to have had anyone like Yardley, much less a William Friedman.

The Japanese Army cryptologists, despite training with the Polish military for over ten years, originally developed substandard codes. Hara's system shows significant improvement and demonstrates an understanding of cryptography at at least the same level as practiced by other major world powers in the early 1940s.

Currency

Bills

Yen

Graphic (page #)

Size (mm)

10000

Fukuzawa Yukichi ()

76x160

10000

Fukuzawa Yukichi ()

76x160

10000

Shōtoku-tennō ()

84x174

5000

Nitobe Inazo ()

76x155

5000

Nitobe Inazo ()

76x155

5000

Shōtoku-tennō ()

80x169

2000

Shurei-mon ()

76x154

1000

Natsume Soseki ()

76x150

1000

Natsume Soseki ()

76x150

1000

Natsume Soseki ()

76x150

1000

Natsume Soseki ()

76x150

1000

Itō Hirobumi ()

76x164

1000

Itō Hirobumi ()

76x164

1000

Shōtoku-tennō ()

76x164

500

Iwakura Tomomi ()

72x159

Table 11 Portraits on Japanese Bills

Yen

From

To

Serial No.

10000

Nov 1, 1984

present

Black

10000

Dec 1, 1993

present

Brown

10000

Dec 1, 1958

Jan 4, 1986


5000

Nov 1, 1984

present

Black

5000

Dec 1, 1993

present

Brown

5000

Oct 1, 1957

Jan 4, 1984


2000

Jul 19, 2000

present


1000

Nov 1, 1984

present

Black

1000

Nov 1, 1990

present

Blue

1000

Dec 1, 1993

present

Brown

1000

Apr 3, 2000

present

Dark Green

1000

Nov 1, 1963

Jan 4, 1986

Black

1000

Jul 1, 1976

Jan 4, 1986

Blue

1000

Jan 7, 1950

Jan 4, 1965


500

Nov 1, 1969

Apr 1, 1994


Table 12 Dates of Use for Japanese Bills

Coins

Daido Masashige – Dutch Learning

Daidoji Masashige

Daidō

Nengō: 806--809

Daiei

Nengō: 1521--1527.

aka Teiei.

Daigo-tennō

The 60th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 18 Jan. 885 to 29 Sept. 930.

Reigned 3 July 897 to 22 Sept. 930.

Daiji

Nengō: 1126--1130.

aka Taiji.

Daimyō

Japanese: 大名

Title given to powerful lords. Literally means `big names' in English. During the Tokugawa shōgunate, any lord who controlled lands that produced more than 10,000 koku was considered a daimyō.

See Also

Tokugawa Shōgunate (pg. X), Koku (pg. X),

Daitsuji-yama

Dan Takuma

Lived 1 Aug. 1858 to 5 March 1932 (assassinated)

Was a member of the Iwakura Mission.

Studied mining in the U.S. and taught at Tokyo University after his return. Later worked at the government-owned Miike coal mine; joined Mitsui when they bought the mine from the government. He rose in the Mitsui ranks and eventually was in charge of all of their mining operations.

Became a well-known and influential businessman.

Assassinated by Hishinuma (Yonuma?) Goro, a member of the Blood League (double check that), on 5 March 1932.

See Also

Blood League (pg. X), Hishinuma Goro (pg. X), Iwakura Mission (pg. X), Miike Coal Mine (pg. X), Mining (pg. X), Mitsui (pg. X), Tokyo University (pg. X),

Date Family

Daimyō family from Mutsu (pg XXX).

Descended from the Fujiwara (pg XXX).

Date Harumune

Lived 1519 to 1577.

Date Masamune

Lived 3 Aug. 1567 to 24 Aug. 1636.

Date Munenari

aka Date Muneki

Lived 1 Aug. 1818 to 20 Dec. 1892

A tozama daimyō who held Uwajima (100,000 koku, pg XXX). He was a reformer who implimented several European ideas in his military and han administration. Originally influential in the Meiji government, Date faded away after the abolition of the han.

Date Shigezane

Lived 1568 to 1646.

Date Tadamune

Died 1658.

Tadamune was the son of Date Masamune.

Date Terumune

Lived 1543 to 1585.

Diet

Japan's Legislative Body (helpful, ain't it)

Dodo Family

Doihara Kenji

Doi Kiyonaga

Doi Sanehira

Doi Toshikatsu

Lived 1573 to 1644.

The son of Mizuno Nobumoto (pg XXX). Adopted by Doi Toshimasa.

Toshikatsu was an important advisor to Tokugawa Iemitsu (pg XXX).

Doi Toshimasa

Doolittle Raid

On the morning of 18 April 1942, 16 B-25 bombers took off from the United States aircraft carrier Hornet. Their target: Japan. Thirteen of them dropped their loads on Tokyo while the remaining three attacked Nagoya. Physical damage was slight but the attacks did shock many Japanese, who had assumed their was no way the enemy could get to them.

On the surface the Doolittle raid was a suicide mission – there was absolutely no way the planes could get back to the Hornet and even if they could, the B-25 was not really a carrier-based plane. Taking off proved possible but landing on a carrier was not an option. In view of this, the official plan called for the pilots to head for friendly bases in China after attacking Japan. A couple of planes even made it.

(Add the details on what happened next!!)

Doshisha University

Dutch Learning

aka Rangaku

Dutch learning is a general term for Western science and medicine that filtered into Japan through the Dutch during the Tokugawa period.

During the period of sakoku, “Western” was closely associated with “Christian” and since Christianity was banned the effect was that most everything Western was banned. As time went on, the Japanese fell technologically further and further behind the West. The Dutch at Dejima tried to make the Bakufu aware of this. In general the Bakufu wasn't interested---although Shōgun Yoshimune did loosen restrictions on foreign books in 1720. Several samurai took an interest in learning some of the more obviously practical arts from the Dutch. In medicine, for example, it was an easy thing to compare a real corpse with the drawings in Western medical books and those in Chinese / Japanese medical books. The Western ones were more accurate and the cures contained in them could soon be seen to be more effective. More abstract pursuits also had some followers.

Echigo Province – Etō Shinpei

Echigo Province

A province in north-central Japan, on the Sea of Japan side. It bordered on Uzen, Iwashiro, Kōtsuke, Shinano, and Etchū. Today the area is known as Niigata Prefecture.

(IIRC, Niigata includes Sado Island but Echigo did not --- must double check this)

See Also

Etchū Province (pg. X), Iwashiro Province (pg. X), Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Niigata Prefecture (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X), Uzen Province (pg. X),

Echizen Province

A province in central Honshū, on the Sea of Japan side. It borders on Kaga, Hida, Mino, Ōmi, and Wakasa. The area is today part of Fukui Prefecture.

See Also

Fukui Prefecture (pg. X), Hida Province (pg. X), Kaga Province (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Wakasa Province (pg. X),

Edo

The Tokugawa shōgunate was centered in Edo. As a result, what had been a small village eventually became, during the Tokugawa period, one of the biggest cities in the world.

After the Meiji Restoration (pg XXX), the leaders of the new imperial government moved the Emperor into Tokugawa castle in Edo and renamed the city Tokyo, the `Eastern Capital'.

Ehime Prefecture

Area: 5,675 km2 (1995)

Capital: Matsuyama

Population: 1,520,000 (1996)

Eichō

Nengō: 1096--1096.

Eien

Nengō: 987--988.

Eihō

Nengō: 1081--1083.

Eiji

Nengō: 1141—1141.

Eikan

Nengō: 983—984.

Eikyō

Nengō: 1429—1440.

Eikyū

Nengō: 1113--1117.

Eiman

Nengō: 1165--1165.

Einin

Nengō: 1293--1298.

Eiroku

Nengō: 1558--1569.

Eiryaku

Nengō: 1160--1160.

Eisai

Lived 20 April 1141 to 1215.

Eisai was a monk who went to China more than once and is credited with introducing tea to Japan. He was also responsible for building and directing several Buddhist temples of the Zen school.

Eishō

Nengō: 1046--1052.

aka Eijō.

Eiso

Nengō: 989--989.

Eitoku

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1381--1383.

Eiwa

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1375--1378.

Ejiri Castle

Embun

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1356--1360.

Emperors

Many of the emperors prior to about 500 A.D. are mythological. The Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan entry for the `Nihon-ki' (pg 448) has a good summary of how unreliable the info on early emperors is.

The Chronological List of Emperors is now on page 389.

Empō

Nengō: 1673--1680.

Enchō

Nengō: 923--930.

Endo Motonobu

Engen

Nengō: 1336--1339.

Engi

Nengō: 901--922.

Enjoji Nobutane

Died 1584.

Samurai who fought and died at the Battle of Okinawate (pg XXX).

Enkei

Nengō: 1308—1310.

Also known as Enkyō. See that entry on page XXX for more information. (but there isn't much there at the moment)

Enkyō (1308)

Nengō: 1308--1310.

Enkyō (1744)

Nengō: 1744--1747.

Enkyū

Nengō: 1069--1073.

En'ō

Nengō: 1239--1239.

Enryaku

Nengō: 782--805.

Entoku

Nengō: 1489--1491.

En'yū-tennō

The 64th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 2 March 959 to 12 Feb. 991

Reigned 13 Aug. 969 to 27 Aug. 984.

Fifth son of Emperor Murakami.

Etchū Province

A province in central Honshū, on the Sea of Japan side. It bordered Echigo, Shinano, Hida, Kaga, and Noto. The area is today Toyama Prefecture.

See Also

Echigo Province (pg. X), Hida Province (pg. X), Kaga Province (pg. X), Noto Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X), Toyama Prefecture (pg. X),

Etō Shinpei

Lived 9 Feb. 1834 to 13 April 1874.

A samurai from Saga (pg XXX), Shinpei held posts in the Meiji government. He resigned over the invasion of Korea.

In 1874, Shinpei led Saga samurai against the government in the Saga Rebellion (pg XXX).

Feminism – Fuwa Mitsuharu

Feminism

Five-Powers Treaty

Treaty negotiated by France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States at the Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922.

The Five-Powers Treaty dealt with naval arms limitations. There were to be no new capital ships constructed for ten years – with the exception that each power could convert two battle cruisers under construction into aircraft carriers. Aircraft carriers could be no bigger than 27,000 tons. (The two converted-battle-cruiser aircraft carriers could be up to 33,000 tons.)

The size of navies was limited. The ratio for capital ships was 10:10:6:6:6 for Great Britain, The United States, France, Japan, and Italy.

See Also

Washington Naval Conference (pg 376)

Formosa Expedition

Four-Powers Treaty

Treaty negotiated by France, Great Britain, Japan, and the United States at the Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922.

The Four-Powers Treaty confirmed the status-quo in the Pacific with respect to each countries possessions.

See Also

Washington Naval Conference (pg 376)

Fujita Denzaburo

Lived 1841 to 1912

Fujiwara Family

Fujiwara Hidesato

Dates unknown.

Hidesato was a Heian era leader of warriors.

Fujiwara Kaneie

Lived 929 to 2 July 990.

Father of Fujiwara Michinaga

Fujiwara Michinaga

Lived 966 to 4 Dec. 1028

Fujiwara Morosuke

Lived 908 to 4 May 960.

Fujiwara no Sadaie

Lived 1162 to 1241

Fujiwara Uona

Fujiwara Yamakage

Fujiwara Yorinaga

Japanese: 藤原 ??

Lived 1120 to 1156.

Naidaijin from about 1137. Minister of the Left from 1150.

Leader of the Hōgen Insurrection (pg 131). Died in the fighting.

Fujiwara Yoritsugu

The 5th Kamakura shōgun.

Lived 21 Nov. 1239 to 25 Sept. 1256.

Ruled 28 April 1244 to Dec. 1251.

Son of Yoritsune.

Fujiwara Yoritsune

Lived 16 Jan. 1218 to 11 Aug. 1256.

Ruled 27 Jan. 1226 to 28 April 1244.

The 4th Kamakura shōgun.

Father of Yoritsugu.

Fujiwara Yoshikado

Fukagawa Cement Works

Fukahara Hirotoshi

Lived 1512 to 1593.

Fukahori Sumikata

Fukuchi Gen'ichiro

Lived 1841 to 1906

Fukuda Hideko

aka Kageyama Hideko

Lived 1865 to 1927

Fukuda Takeo

Born 1905.

Graduated from Tokyo University. Worked for the Finance Ministry. Elected to the Diet in 1952. Served in various cabinets and became prime minister on 24 December 1976. His cabinet lasted until 7 December 1978.

Fukui City

The capital of Fukui Prefecture.

Fukui Prefecture

Area: 4,188 km2 (1995)

Capital: Fukui

Population: 830,000 (1996)

Fukumoto Kazuo

A Marxist intellectual who was influential in the Japanese communist movement in the mid-1920's.

Fukuoka City

The capital of Fukuoka Prefecture.

Fukuoka Prefecture

Area: 4,968 km2 (1995)

Capital: Fukuoka

Population: 4,900,000 (1996)

Fukushima City

The capital of Fukushima Prefecture (pg XXX).

Fukushima Masanobu

Fukushima Masanori

Lived 1561 to 13 July 1634 (1614?).

Fukushima Masashige

Died 1521.

Fukushima Masayori

Fukushima Prefecture

Area: 13,782 km2 (1995)

Capital: Fukushima

Population: 2,140,000 (1996)

Fukuzawa Yukichi

Lived 12 Dec. 1834 to 3 Feb. 1901.

Studied Western science in Nagasaki. Studied in Ōsaka under Ogata Kōan from 1854. Later taught in Tokyo---his school eventually became Keiō University.

Went abroad several times. Wrote Seiyō Jijō (Conditions in the West) which was hugely popular. Also wrote The Encouragement of Learning, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, (Japanese titles?) among many books and articles.

Founded Jiji Shinpō in 1882.

His portrait is on the current 10,000 yen bill.

See Also

Ogata Kōan (pg. X), Jiji Shinpō (pg. X), Currency (pg. X),

Fuma Kotaro

aka Kazama Kotaro.

Furukawa Ichibei

Lived 1832 to 1903

Businessman. Bought the Ashio copper mine from the government in 1877. Eventually he was in control of a minor zaibatsu.

Furuta Shigekatsu

Lived 1561 to 1600.

Survived the Battle of Sekigahara but died later the same year.

Received Matsuzaka (37,000 koku) in Ise from Hideyoshi (when?). In 1600, Ieyasu awarded him someplace worth 60,000 koku.

See Also

Ise Province (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Furuta Shigenari

Lived 1545 to 1615.

A minor daimyō in charge of 10,000 koku which he received sometime after 1600. He lost his domain because he communicated with the Toyotomi during the Seige of Ōsaka Castle.

See Also

Ōsaka, Siege of (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Toyotomi Family (pg. X), Fushimi Castle (pg. X),

Fushimi, Seige of

Took place in 1600.

Torii Mototada (pg XXX) defended the castle for Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg XXX).

Fushimi-tennō

The 92nd Emperor of Japan.

Lived 23 April 1265 to 3 Sept. 1317.

Reigned 21 Oct. 1287 to 22 July 1298.

Futamata, Seige of

Took place in 1572.

The castle is on a cliff above the Tenryūgawa. The defenders got water from the river by lowering buckets into the river from a protected tower.

The castle was owned by the Tokugawa and beseiged by Takeda Katsuyori (pg XXX). Katsuyori floated large, unmanned rafts down the river and into the tower. These weakened the tower enough that it eventually collapsed, depriving the defenders of their water supply. The defenders surrendered soon after.

Futo, Battle of

Fuwa Katsumitsu

Fuwa Mitsuharu

Died 1581.

Gamō Hideyuki – Gyoki

Gamō Hideyuki

Lived 1583 to 1612.

The son of Gamō Ujisato. Christian. Was moved to Utsunomiya (180,000 koku) in Shimotsuke after his father died in 1595. In 1600, he was given Wakamatsu, worth 600,000 koku. This had been part of his father's fief.

See Also

Gamō Ujisato (pg. X), Shimotsuke (pg. X), Utsunomiya-han (pg. X), Wakamatsu-han (pg. X),

Gamō Katahide

Lived 1534 to 1584.

The father of Gamō Ujisato.

Served the Sasaki family and later Oda Nobunaga.

See Also

Gamō Ujisato (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Sasaki Family (pg. X),

Gamō Ujisato

Lived 1556 to 7 Feb. 1595.

Son of Gamō Katahide and father of Gamō Hideyuki. His wife was a daughter of Oda Nobunaga. Christian.

Fought at Ōkōchi castle in 1570.

Was daimyō of Matsusaka (120,000 koku) in Ise Province but was ordered to Aizu (420,000 koku) in Mutsu as part of a plan to bring the northeastern daimyō under Hideyoshi's control. To this end, Ujisato and Asano Nagamasa defeated and killed Kunohe Masazane (when? where?). As a reward for his successful service, Ujisato was granted extra lands and was eventually in control of more than one million koku.

In 1584, he was baptised and took the name Leo.

See Also

Aizu-han (pg. X), Asano Nagamasa (pg. X), Gamō Hideyuki (pg. X), Gamō Katahide (pg. X), Ise Province (pg. X), Kunohe Masazane (pg. X), Ōkōchi Castle (pg. X), Matsusaka-han (pg. X), Mutsu Province (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Gembun

Nengō: 1736--1740.

Gemmei-tennō

Empress. The 43th ruler of Japan.

Reigned 707 to 715.

Genchū

Nengō: 1380--1382.

Gen'ei

Nengō: 1118--1119.

aka Gan'ei.

Genji

Nengō: 1864--1864.

aka Ganji.

Genkei

Nengō: 877--884.

Genki

Nengō: 1570--1572.

Genkō (1321)

Nengō: 1321--1323.

aka Genkyō.

Genkō (1331)

Nengō: 1331--1333.

Genkyō

Nengō: 1321--1323.

Usually known as Genkō. See that entry on page XXX.

Genkyū

Nengō: 1204--1205.

Genna

Nengō: 1615--1623.

aka Genwa.

Gennin

Nengō: 1224--1224.

Gen'ō

Nengō: 1319--1320.

Genreki

Nengō: 1184--1184.

Usually known as Genryaku. See that entry on page XXX.

Genroku

Nengō: 1688--1703.

Genro

``Elder Statesmen''. A term applied to the leaders of the Meiji government. Includes men such as Ito Hirobumi and ???. Saonji Kinmochi is considered the last Genro.

Genryaku

Nengō: 1184--1184.

aka Ganryaku. aka Genreki.

Genshō-tennō

Empress. The 44th ruler of Japan.

Reigned 715 to 724.

Gentoku

Nengō: 1329--1330.

Genwa

Nengō: 1615--1623.

Usually known as Genna. See that entry on page XXX.

Gifu City

A city in, and the capital of, Gifu Prefecture.

Gifu Prefecture

Area: 10,598 km2 (1995)

Capital: Gifu

Population: 2,100,000 (1996)

Ginkakuji

Godaigo-tennō

The 96th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 2 Nov. 1288 to 16 Aug. 1339.

Reigned 26 Feb. 1318 to 15 Aug 1339.

Godai Tomoatsu

Lived 1836 to 1885.

Businessman.

Studied in the West 1865 to 1866. Joined the Meiji government but soon left and went into business. Godai was active in metals, mining, and railways, among other interests.

Godō Takuo

Agriculture & Forestry Minister from Aug 30, 1939 to Oct 16, 1939 in Abe Nobuyuki's cabinet.

Gofukakusa-tennō

The 89th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 10 June 1243 to 16 July 1304.

Reigned 29 Jan. 1246 to 26 Nov. 1259.

Gofushimi-tennō

The 93rd Emperor of Japan.

Lived 3 March 1288 to 6 April 1336.

Reigned 22 July 1298 to 21 Jan. 1301.

Gohanazono-tennō

The 102nd Emperor of Japan.

Lived 18 June 1419 to 27 Dec. 1470.

Reigned 28 July 1428 to 19 July 1464.

Gohorikawa-tennō

The 86th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 18 Feb. 1212 to 6 Aug. 1234.

Reigned 9 July 1221 to 4 Oct. 1232.

Goichijō-tennō

The 68th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 11 Sept. 1008 to 17 April 1036.

Reigned 29 Jan 1016 to 17 April 1036.

The second son of the Emperor Ichijō. (double check that)

Gokameyama-tennō

The 99th Emperor of Japan.

Died 12 April 1424

Reigned 1383 to 1392.

Gokashiwabara-tennō

The 104th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 20 Oct. 1464 to 7 April 1526.

Reigned 25 Oct. 1500 to 7 April 1526.

The coronation ceremony was not held until 1521.

Gokomatsu-tennō

The 100th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 27 June 1377 to 20 Oct. 1433.

Reigned 11 April 1382 to 1392 as the emperor of the Northern Court and continued as emperor when the courts reunited until abdicating on 29 Aug. 1412.

Gokōmyō-tennō

The 110th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 12 March 1633 to 20 Sept. 1654.

Reigned 3 Oct. 1643 to 20 Sept. 1654.

Gomizunō-tennō

The 108th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 4 June 1596 to 19 Aug. 1680.

Reigned 27 March 1611 to 8 Nov. 1629.

Father of Reigen-tennō (pg. X).

Gomomozono-tennō

The 118th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 2 July 1758 to 29 Oct. 1779.

Reigned 24 Nov. 1770 to 29 Oct. 1779.

Gomurakami-tennō

The 97th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 1328 to 11 March 1368.

Reigned 15 Aug. 1339 to 11 March 1368.

Gonara-tennō

The 105th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 23 Dec. 1496 to 5 Sept. 1557

Reigned 29 April 1526 to 5 Sept. 1557.

Gonijō-tennō

The 94th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 2 Feb. 1285 to 25 Aug. 1308

Reigned 21 Jan. 1301 to 25 Aug. 1308.

Goreizei-tennō

The 70th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 3 Aug. 1025 to 19 April 1068.

Reigned 16 Jan. 1045 to 19 April 1068.

Gosaga-tennō

The 88th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 26 Feb. 1220 to 17 Feb. 1272.

Reigned 20 Jan. 1242 to 29 Jan. 1246.

Gosai-tennō

The 111st Emperor of Japan.

Lived 16 Nov. 1637 to 22 Feb. 1685.

Reigned 28 Nov. 1654(?) to 26 Jan. 1663.

Gosakuramachi-tennō

The 117th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 3 Aug. 1740 to 1813.

Reigned 27 July 1762 to 24 Nov. 1770.

Gosanjō-tennō

The 71st Emperor of Japan.

Lived 18 July 1034 to 7 May 1073.

Reigned 19 April 1068 to 8 Dec. 1072.

Goshirakawa-tennō

The 77th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 11 Sept. 1127 to 13 March 1192.

Reigned 24 July 1155 to 11 Aug. 1158.

Gosuzaku-tennō

The 69th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 25 Nov. 1009 to 18 Jan. 1045.

Reigned 17 April 1036 to 16 Jan. 1045.

Gotoba-tennō

The 82nd Emperor of Japan.

Lived 14 July 1180 to 22 Feb. 1239.

Reigned 20 Aug. 1183 to 11 Jan. 1198.

Goto Family (Haruma)

Gotō Family (Hizen)

Daimyō family from Hizen Province, related to the Seiwa-Genji.

Goto Moriharu

Died 1578.

Goto Motokuni

Died 1580.

Gotō Mototsugu

Lived 1573 to 1615.

Aka Gotō Matabei.

Son of Gotō Motokuni and father of Gotō Ujifusa.

Gotō Shinpei

Lived 4 June 1857 to 13 April 1929.

Doctor and Bureaucrat

Head of Sanitation Bureau (part of the Home Ministry) from 1890 to 1892 and again from 1895 to 1898.

Was the head of civilian administration of Taiwan from 1898 to 1906.

Became the first president of the Manchurian Railway in 1906.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Katsura

Communications

Jul 14, 2008

Aug 30, 1911

3rd Katsura

Communications

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Terauchi

Home Affairs

Oct 9, 1916

Apr 23, 1918

Terauchi

Foreign Affairs

Apr 23, 1918

Sep 29, 1918

2nd Yamamoto

Home Affairs

Sep 2, 1923

Jan 7, 1924

Table 13 Cabinet Positions Held by Gotō Shinpei

See Also

Taiwan (pg. X), Manchurian Railway Company (pg. X),

Gotō Shōjirō

Lived 19 March 1838 to 4 Aug. 1897.

Samurai and Politician

Samurai from Tosa. Gotō studied at Kaiseitō and was influenced by Sakamoto Ryōma. He was active in the Meiji government but quit in 1873 over disagreements about whether or not to invade Korea.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Kuroda

Communications

03/22/89

12/24/89

1st Yamaguchi

Communications

12/24/89

05/06/91

1st Matsukata

Communications

05/06/91

08/08/92

2nd Itō

Agriculture and Commerce

08/08/92

01/22/94

Table 14 Cabinet Positions Held by Gotō Shōjirō

See Also

Itō Hirobumi (pg. X), Kaiseitō (pg. X), Korea, Invasion of (pg. X), Matsukata Masayoshi (pg. X), Tosa-han (pg. X), Yamagato Aritomo (pg. X),

Goto Sumikuro

Goto Takaaki

Gotō Ujifusa

Lived 1570 to 1615.

The son of Gotō Mototsugu. Served Kuroda Nagamasa. Was loyal to Toyotomi Hideyori and died at Ōsaka Castle.

See Also

Gotō Mototsugu (pg. X), Kuroda Nagamasa (pg. X), Ōsaka, Seige of (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyori (pg. X),

Gotsuchimikado-tennō

The 103rd Emperor of Japan.

Lived 25 May 1442 to 28 Sept. 1500.

Reigned 19 July 1464 to 28 Sept. 1500.

Gouda-tennō

The 91st Emperor of Japan.

Lived 1 Dec. 1267 to 25 June 1324.

Reigned 26 Jan. 1274 to 21 Oct. 1287.

Goyōzei-tennō

The 107th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 15 Dec. 1571 to 26 Aug. 1617.

Reigned 7 Nov. 1586 to 27 March 1611.

Great Kansai Earthquake

Occurred 17 January 1995

Two great earthquakes shook Japan in the 20th century: the Great Kanto Earthquake (pg 116) in 1923 and the Great Kansai Earthquake in 1995. The latter occurred on 17 January 1995.

Great Kanto Earthquake

Occurred 1 September 1923

Two great earthquakes shook Japan in the 20th century: the Great Kanto Earthquake in 1923 and the Great Kansai Earthquake (pg 116) in 1995. The former occurred on 1 September and started (as is not unusual with earthquakes) fires that killed more people than did the quake itself. An estimated 100,000 people died and as many as two million were left homeless.

Rumours spread that various unpopular groups were taking advantage of the chaos to start fires and otherwise increase the general misery. The rumours were just that – rumours, but many people, including the authorities, used them as an excuse to crack down on the groups. Hundreds of Koreans, Socialists, Anarchists, and some others were murdered – either by mobs or by the police.

Gunma Prefecture

Area: 6,363km2 (1995)

Capital: Maebashi

Population: 2,000,000 (1996)

Gyoki

Lived 668 to 749.

Habu Yoshiharu – Hyūga Province

Habu Yoshiharu

Hakuchi

Nengō: 650--654.

Hakuchō

Nengō: 673--685.

Hakuhō

Nengō: 672--685.

Hamada Hikozo

see Heco, Joseph on page 123.

Hamaguchi Osachi

aka Hamaguchi Yuko

Lived 1870 to 1931

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katō

Finance

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

2nd Katō

Finance

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Finance

Jan 30, 1926

Jun 3, 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Home Affairs

Jun 3, 1926

Dec 16, 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Home Affairs

Mar 15, 1927

Apr 20, 1927

Hamaguchi

Prime Minister

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Table 15 Cabinet Positions Held by Hamaguchi Osachi

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Hamaguchi Osachi

Prime Minister

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Machida Chūji

Agriculture & Forestry

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Suzuki Fujiya

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Kawasaki Takukichi

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Matsuda Genji

Colonization

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Tawara Magoichi

Commerce & Industry

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Koizumi Matajirō

Communications

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Kobashi Ichita

Education

Jul 2, 1929

Nov 29, 1929

Tanaka Ryūzō

Education

Nov 29, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Inoue Junnosuke

Finance

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Shidehara Kijurō

Foreign Affairs

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Abe Nobuyuki

Hanretsu

Jun 16, 1930

Dec 10, 1930

Adachi Kenzō

Home Affairs

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Watanabe Chifuyu

Justice

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Takarabe Takeshi

Navy

Jul 2, 1929

Oct 3, 1930

Abo Kiyokazu

Navy

Oct 3, 1930

Apr 14, 1931

Egi Tasuku

Railways

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

Ugaki Kazushige

War

Jul 2, 1929

Jun 16, 1930

Abe Nobuyuki

War

Jun 16, 1930

Dec 10, 1930

Ugaki Kazushige

War

Dec 10, 1930

Apr 14, 1931

Table 16 Hamaguchi Osachi's Cabinet

Hanazono-tennō

The 95th emperor of Japan.

Lived 25 July 1297 to 11 Nov. 1348.

Reigned 26 Aug. 1308 to 26 Feb. 1318.

Son of Emperor Fushimi.

Hanzei-tennō

The 18th emperor of Japan.

Dates unknown.

Reigned 406 to 410.

Son of Emperor Nintoku.

Hara Castle

A castle in Hizen Provence. During the Shimabara Rebellion, (who-was-it-again?) besieged the rebellious peasants there.

See Also

Hara, Seige of (pg. X), Hizen Province (pg. X), Shimabara Rebellion (pg. X),

Hara Kei

Aka Hara Satoshi and Hara Takashi

Lived 9 Feb. 1856 to 4 Nov. 1921

Well known as the first `commoner' prime minister.

Cabinet Positions Held by Hara Kei

Cabinet

Position

From

To

4th Itō

Communications

Dec 22, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

1st Saionji

Home Affairs

Jan 7, 1906

Jul 14, 1908

1st Saionji

Communications

Jan 14, 1908

Mar 25, 1908

2nd Saionji

Home Affairs

Aug 30, 1911

Dec 21, 1912

1st Yamamoto

Home Affairs

Feb 20, 1913

Apr 16, 1914

Hara

Prime Minister

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1912

Hara

Justice

Sep 29, 1918

May 15, 1920

Table 17 Cabinet Positions Held by Hara Kei

Name

Position

From

To

Hara Kei

Prime Minister

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Yamamoto Tatsuo

Agriculture AND Commerce

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Takahashi Mitsutake

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Yokota Sennosuke

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Noda Utarō

Communications

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Nakahashi Tokugorō

Education

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Takahashi Korekiyo

Finance

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Uchida Kōsai

Foreign Affairs

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Tokonami Takejirō

Home Affairs

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Hara Kei

Justice

Sep 29, 1918

May 15, 1920

Ōki Enkichi

Justice

May 15, 1920

Nov 13, 1921

Katō Tomosaburō

Navy

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921

Motoda Hajime

Railways

May 15, 1920

Nov 13, 1921

Tanaka Giichi

War

Sep 29, 1918

Jun 9, 1921

Yamanashi Hanzō

War

Jun 9, 1921

Nov 13, 1921

Table 18 Hara Kei's Cabinet

Hara, Seige of

Lasted from 1637—1638.

The main battle of the Shimabara Rebellion. The defenders held out against incredible odds but eventually the food runs out and grass will not sustain an army.

Harbin

Harima Province

A province in the area that is today Hyōgo Prefecture. Harima bordered on Tajima, Tamba, Settsu, Bizen, and Mimasaka.

See Also

Bizen Province (pg. X), Hyōgo Prefecture (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X), Settsu Province (pg. X), Tajima Province (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X),

Harris, Townsend

Lived 4 Oct. 1804 to 25 Feb. 1878.

``Plenipotentiary Minister and Consul” of the United States, Harris arrived in Japan in August of 1856. Two years later, in 1858, he signed a treaty (the ansei treaties, yes?).

Hashimoto Kingoro

Lived 1890 to 1957

Hashimoto Ryūtarō

Prime Minister from 11 January 1996 to 7 November 1996 and from 7 November 1996 to 30 July 1998.

Replaced by Obuchi Keizō (pg XXX).

Hatakeyama Family

A daimyō family originally descended from Taira Takamochi.

Hatano Hideharu

Hata Tsutomu

Prime Minister from 28 April 1994 to 30 June 1994. Replaced by Murayama Tomiichi (pg XXX).

Hatoyama Ichirō

Lived 1883 to 1959

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Tanaka

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Apr 20, 1927

Jul 2, 1929

Inukai

Education

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Saitō

Education

May 26, 1932

Mar 3, 1934

1st Hatoyama

Prime Minister

Dec 10, 1954

Mar 19, 1955

2nd Hatoyama

Prime Minister

Mar 19, 1955

Nov 22, 1955

3rd Hatoyama

Prime Minister

Nov 22, 1955

Dec 23, 1956

Table 19 Cabinet Positions Held by Hatoyama Ichirō

(Coming Soon - his cabinets!)

Hayashi Senjūrō

Lived 1876 to 1943.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Saitō

War

Jan 23, 1934

Jul 8, 1934

Okada

War

Jul 8, 1934

Sep 5, 1935

Hayashi

Foreign Affairs

Feb 2, 1937

Mar 3, 1937

Hayashi

Prime Minister

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Hayashi

Education

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Table 20 Cabinet Positions Held by Hayashi Senjūrō

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Hayashi Senjūrō

Prime Minister

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Yamazaki Tatsunosuke

Agriculture & Forestry

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Ōhashi Hachirō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Kawagoe Takeo

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Yūki Toyotarō

Colonization

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Godō Takuo

Commerce & Industry

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Yamazaki Tatsunosuke

Communications

Feb 2, 1937

Feb 10, 1937

Kodama Hideo

Communications

Feb 10, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Hayashi Senjūrō

Education

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Yūki Toyotarō

Finance

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Hayashi Senjūrō

Foreign Affairs

Feb 2, 1937

Mar 3, 1937

Satō Naotake

Foreign Affairs

Mar 3, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Kawarada Kakichi

Home Affairs

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Shiono Suehiko

Justice

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Yonai Mitsumasa

Navy

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Godō Takuo

Railways

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Nakamura Kōtarō

War

Feb 2, 1937

Feb 9, 1937

Sugiyama Gen

War

Feb 9, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Table 21 Hayashi Senjūrō's Cabinet

Hayashi Yūzō

Lived 1842 to 1921

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Ōkuma

Communications

Jun 30, 1898

Nov 8, 1898

4th Itō

Agriculture & Commerce

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Heco, Joseph

Hayashi Tadasu

Lived 1850 to 1913

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Saionji

Foreign Affairs

May 19, 1906

Aug 30, 1906

1st Saionji

Foreign Affairs

Sep 18, 1906

Jul 14, 1908

2nd Saionji

Communications

Aug 30, 1911

Dec 21, 1912

Table 22 Cabinet Positions Held by Hayashi Tadasu

aka Hamada Hikozo

Lived 1837 to 1897

Heian Period

Japanese: 平安時代

The Heian period is the last division of classical Japanese history and runs from 794 to 1185. The Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 after the movement of the imperial capital to Heiankyō (present-day Kyōto) by the 50th emperor Kammu. It is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. Also, the period is also noted for the rise of the samurai class, which would eventually take power and start the feudal period of Japan.

Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in fact power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police and soldiers. The warrior class made steady gains throughout the Heian period. As early as 939, Taira no Masakado threatened the authority of the central government, leading an uprising in the eastern province of Hitachi, and almost simultaneously, Fujiwara no Sumitomo rebelled in the west. Still, military takeover was centuries away.

The entry of the warrior class into court influence was a result of the Hogen disturbance. At this time Taira Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency. The Taira clan was overthrown in the Gempei War and the Minamoto because the power behind the throne. Thus the Heian period ends in 1185 when Minamoto Yoritomo established a bakufu, the Kamakura shōgunate, in Kamakura.

This period saw the flowering of the Shingon school of esoteric Buddhism, founded by Kukai, as well as the Jodo Shinshu, or True Pure Land, school, founded by Shinran.

Heian period literature

Although written Chinese remained the official language of the Heian period imperial court, the introduction and wide use of kana saw a boom in Japanese literature. Despite the establishment of several new literary genre such as the novel and narrative monogatari (物語) and essays, literacy was only common among the court and Buddhist clergy.

The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, "Kimi Ga Yo," were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, one of the first novels in Japanese. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shonagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s. The famous Japanese poem known as the iroha was also written during the Heian period.

The Rise of the military class

Under the early courts, when military conscription had been centrally controlled, military affairs had been taken out of the hands of the provincial aristocracy. But as the system broke down after 792, local power holders again became the primary source of military strength. Shoen holders had access to manpower and, as they obtained improved military technology (such as new training methods, more powerful bows, armor, horses, and superior swords) and faced worsening local conditions in the ninth century, military service became part of shoen life. Not only the shoen but also civil and religious institutions formed private guard units to protect themselves. Gradually, the provincial upper class was transformed into a new military elite based on the ideals of the bushi (warrior) or samurai (literally, one who serves; see The Bushido Code , ch. 8).

Bushi interests were diverse, cutting across old power structures to form new associations in the tenth century. Mutual interests, family connections, and kinship were consolidated in military groups that became part of family administration. In time, large regional military families formed around members of the court aristocracy who had become prominent provincial figures. These military families gained prestige from connections to the imperial court and court-granted military titles and access to manpower. The Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.

Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto families – all of whom had descended from the imperial family – attacked one another and claimed control over conquered land. They used this land to reward, and thus ensure the loyalty of, their retainers.

The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of Emperor Go-Sanjo (1068-73), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Go-Sanjo, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate estate records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many shoen were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Go-Sanjo also established the Incho, or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or insei (cloistered government).

The Incho filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from 1086 to 1156 was the age of supremacy of the Incho and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.

A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. Fujiwara Yorinaga sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in 1158 against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto. In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the insei system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. Within a year, the Taira and Minamoto clashed, and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, Minamoto Yoritomo (1147-99) rose from his headquarters at Kamakura (in the Kanto region, southwest of modern Tokyo) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor they controlled, in the Gempei War (1180-85).

See Also

Suggested Reading

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heian_Period

Heiji

Nengō: 1159--1159.

Heiminsha

Heisei-tennō

The 125th emperor of Japan. Also the current emperor.

Reign: 1989 to present.

Heisei

Nengō: 1989--present

Heizei-tennō

The 51st emperor of Japan.

Lived 15 Aug. 774 to 7 July 824.

Reigned 17 March 806 to 1 April 809.

Hepburn, James

Lived 1815 to 1911

Heusken, Henry

Lived 1832 to 1861

Served the U.S. government. Was murdered in Edo on 14 Jan. 1861.

Hibuya Riots

Hida Province

A province in the area that is today part of Gifu Prefecture. Hida bordered on Kaga, Etchū, Shinano, Mino, and Echizen.

See Also

Echizen Province (pg. X), Etchū Province (pg. X), Gifu Prefecture (pg. X), Hida Province (pg. X), Kaga Province (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X),

Higashikuni Naruhiko

Lived 3 December 1887 to 20 Jan. 1990.

Prime Minister from 17 August 1945 to 9 October 1945.

(Add cabinet)

Higashiyama-tennō

The 113rd emperor of Japan.

Lived 3 Sept. 1675 to 17 Dec. 1709.

Reigned 21 March 1687 to 21 June 1709.

Higo Province

A province in the area that is today Kumamoto Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū. Higo bordered on Chikugo, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma.

See Also

Bungo Province (pg. X), Chikugo Province (pg. X), Hyūga Province (pg. X), Kumamoto Prefecture (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X), Ōsumi Province (pg. X), Satsuma Province (pg. X),

Himeji Castle

Castle in Hyōgo Prefecture (Harima Province). Originally build around 1350 by Akamatsu Sadanori. Over the years it changed hands many times. Toyotomi Hideyoshi took Himeji castle for Oda Nobunaga in 1577.

During the Tokugawa Period, a succession of daimyō were moved in and out of the castle.

See Also

Akamatsu Sadanori (pg. X), Harima Province (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Himiko

aka Pimiko

In ancient Chinese texts, Himiko is mentioned as the queen of Japan, but just who she was and where she ruled is still a bit of a mystery.

Hinin

Outcastes. The lowest class in pre-Meiji Japanese society. The class officially ceased to exist in 1871, but unoffical discrimination did not end overnight.

Hiranuma Kiichirō

Lived 28 Sept. 1867 to 22 Aug. 1952.

Prime Minister from 5 January 1939 to 30 August 1939.

Cabinet Posts

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Yamamoto

Justice

Sep 6, 1923

Jan 7, 1924

Hiranuma

Prime Minister

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

2nd Konoe

Minister of State

Dec 6, 1940

Dec 21, 1940

2nd Konoe

Home Affairs

Dec 21, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

3rd Konoe

Minister of State

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Table 23 Cabinet Positions Held by Hiranuma Kiichirō

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Hiranuma Kiichirō

Prime Minister

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Sakurauchi Yukio

Agriculture & Forestry

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Tanabe Harumichi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jan 5, 1939

Apr 7, 1939

Kurosaki Teizō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Ōta Kōzō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Apr 7, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Koiso Kuniaki

Colonization

Apr 7, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Hatta Yoshiaki

Colonization

Jan 5, 1939

Apr 7, 1939

Hatta Yoshiaki

Commerce & Industry

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Shiono Suehiko

Communications

Jan 5, 1939

Apr 7, 1939

Tanabe Harumichi

Communications

Apr 7, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Araki Sadao

Education

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Ishiwata Sōtarō

Finance

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Arita Hachirō

Foreign Affairs

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Konoe Fumimaro

Hanretsu

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Kido Kōichi

Home Affairs

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Shiono Suehiko

Justice

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Yonai Mitsumasa

Navy

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Maeda Yonezō

Railways

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Itagaki Seishirō

War

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Hirose Hisatada

Welfare

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Table 24Hiranuma Kiichirō's Cabinet

Hiratsuka Raicho

Lived 1886 to 1971

Hirohito

see Showa-tennō (page XXX)

Hirose Saihei

Lived 1828 to 1914

Hiroshima, Bombing Of

The United States military dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima in Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan, on 6 August 1945.

Hiroshima City

The capital of Hiroshima Prefecture.

Hiroshima was the first city --- Japanese or otherwise --- to suffer a nuclear bombing. The only other city to have a nuclear weapon used on it is Nagasaki, in Nagasaki Prefecture.

See Also

Hiroshima, Bombing of (pg XXX), Nagasaki, Bombing of (pg XXX), Nagasaki City (pg XXX)

Hiroshima Prefecture

Area: 8,475 km2 (1995)

Capital: Hiroshima

Population: 2,870,000 (1996)

Hirota Kōki

Lived 14 Feb. 1878 to 23 Dec. 1948

Executed as a class `A' war criminal.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Saitō

Foreign Affairs

Sep 14, 1933

Jul 8, 1934

Okada

Foreign Affairs

Jul 8, 1934

Mar 9, 1936

Hirota

Foreign Affairs

Mar 9, 1936

Apr 2, 1936

Hirota

Prime Minister

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

1st Konoe

Foreign Affairs

Jun 4, 1937

May 26, 1938

Table 25 Cabinet Positions Held by Hirota Kōki

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Hirota Kōki

Prime Minister

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Shimada Toshio

Agriculture & Forestry

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Fujinuma Shōhei

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Tsugita Daizaburō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Nagata Hidejirō

Colonization

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Kawasaki Takukichi

Commerce & Industry

Mar 9, 1936

Mar 27, 1936

Ogawa Gōtarō

Commerce & Industry

Mar 28, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Tanomogi Keikichi

Communications

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Ushio Keinosuke

Education

Mar 9, 1936

Mar 25, 1936

Hirao Hachisaburō

Education

Mar 25, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Baba Eiichi

Finance

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Hirota Kōki

Foreign Affairs

Mar 9, 1936

Apr 2, 1936

Arita Hachirō

Foreign Affairs

Apr 2, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Ushio Keinosuke

Home Affairs

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Hayashi Raizaburō

Justice

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Nagano Osami

Navy

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Maeda Yonezō

Railways

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Terauchi Hisaichi

War

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Table 26 Hirota Kōki's Cabinet

Hisaakira

Lived 1276--1328.

(ADD rule dates)

The seventh son of the Emperor Gofukakusa.

He was made shōgun by Hōjō Sadatoki, replacing Koreyasu.

See Also

Gofukakusa-tennō (pg. X), Hōjō Sadatoki (pg. X), Koreyasu (pg. X), Table of Shōgun (pg. X)

Hitachi Province

A province which bordered on Iwashiro, Iwaki, Shimōsa, and Shimotsuku Provinces. Today the area is Ibaraki Prefecture.

See Also

Ibaraki Prefecture (pg. X), Iwaki Province (pg. X), Iwashiro Province (pg. X), Shimōsa Province (pg. X), Shimotsuku Province (pg. X),

Hiyama Castle

Hizen Province

A province which bordered on Chikuzen and Chikugo. Today the area is part of Nagasaki Prefecture.

Hideyoshi directed the invasion of Korea from the city of Nagoya, in Hizen.

The Shimabara Rebellion took place in Hizen Province.

See Also

Chikugo Province (pg. X), Chikuzen Province (pg. X), Korea, Invasion of (pg. X), Shimabara Rebellion (pg. X),

Hōan

Nengō: 1120--1123.

Hōei

Nengō: 1704--1710.

Hōen

Nengō: 1135--1140.

Hōgen

Japanese: 保元

Nengō: 1156—1158.

Hōgen Insurrection

Japanese: 保元の乱

Disturbance that took place in 1156 between forces raised by Fujiwara Yorinaga (pg 103) and the troops of the Minamoto and Taira families. Named for the nengō during which it took place.

The disturbance took place after a dispute over who would succeed the Emperor Konoye. The Fujiwara Regent, Fujiwara Tadamichi, supported one of the retired Emperor Toba's sons but Yorinaga did not. In the end, the Emperor Toba's son ascended the throne as Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Yorinaga was denied a position of tutor to the heir and took up the cause of Sutoku. He raised troops and set up defences in a palace in the capital. The rebels were attacked there by soldiers supporting the new emperor, including men from both the Taira and Minamoto families.

The importance of the Hōgen Insurrection lies in the fact that warriors had been called on to ratify, in a way, a succession to the throne. They were now the main power in the county. For the next thirty years, the military houses would fight among themselves for control of the country.

(insert Sansom quotes)

Hōji

Nengō: 1247--1248.

Hōjō Family

Descended from Taira Sadamori. There are two main branches:

See Also

Hōjō Sōun (pg. X), Hōjō Ujitsuna (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Hojoji

A temple in Kyōto.

Hōjō Masako

Lived 1157 to 1225

aka Ama shōgun (Nun shōgun)

Hōjō Masako married Minamoto Yoritomo. She became a nun after he died but remained the power behind the shōgun until her death in 1225.

Hōjō Tokiyori

Lived 1226 to 1263.

5th Kamakura Regent. Held office from 1246 to 1256.

Hōjō Tsunetoki

Lived 1224 to 1246.

4th Kamakura Regent. Held office from 1242 to 1246.

Son of Hōjō Tokiuji.

Hōjō Ujikuni

Son of Hōjō Ujiyasu.

Hōjō Ujiteru

Son of Hōjō Ujiyasu.

Hōjō Ujiyasu

Lived 1515 to 1570.

Son of Hōjō Ujitsuna. Father of Hōjō Ujikuni and Hōjō Ujiteru.

Fought many battles against the Uesugi, Imagawa, the Takeda, the Ota, the Mogami, and the Ashikaga Families. Not all at once of course.

His 7th son was adopted by Uesugi Kenshin and became Uesugi Kagetora.

See Also

Hōjō Ujikuni (pg. X), Hōjō Ujiteru (pg. X), Hōjō Ujitsuna (pg. X), Uesugi Kagetora (pg. X), Uesugi Kenshin (pg. X),

Hōjō Yasutoki

Lived 1183 to 1242.

The 3rd Kamakura Regent. Held office from 1224 to 1242.

Hōki Province

A province in the area that is today Tottori Prefecture. Hoki bordered on Inaba, Mamasaka, Bitchū, Bingo, and Izumo Provinces.

See Also

Bingo Province (pg. X), Bitchū Province (pg. X), Inaba Province (pg. X), Izumo Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X), Tottori Prefecture pg. XXX

Hōki

Nengō: 770--780.

Hokkaidō Prefecture

Technically, not a ken but a dō.

The largest prefecture in Japan and also the most northerly. Known in Tokugawa times as Ezo.

Area: 83,452 km2 (1995)

Capital: Sapporo

Population: 5,690,000 (1996)

Honda Sōichirō

Lived 1906 to 1991

Honnōji, Seige of

Took place in 1582.

Akechi Mitsuhide attacked Oda Nobunaga at the Honnōji, a temple in Kyōto. Mitsuhide was one of Nobunaga's generals and surprise was complete. Nobunaga only had his bodyguards with him and committed suicide.

See the entry for Akechi Mitsuhide for information on his motives.

See Also

Akechi Mitsuhide (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Yamazaki, Battle of (pg. X),

Honshū

One of the four main islands of Japan. Honshū is the main island in that most of the population of the country lives there and most of the most important cities are located in Honshū.

See Also

Hokkaidō Prefecture (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X), Shikoku (pg. X)

Hōreki

Nengō: 1751--1763.

Hori Chikamasa

Son of Hori Chikayoshi.

Hori Chikasada

Son of Hori Chikamasa. (double check this)

Hori Chikayoshi

Lived 1580 to 1637.

Son of Hori Hidemasa.

Daimyō of Zōō (Echigo, 40,000 koku). Dispossessed in 1610 but two years later he was given Mōka in Shimotsuke. In 1627 he received Karasuyama, also in Shimotsuke.

Hori Family

A daimyō family from Mino. Descended from Fujiwara Uona (pg XXX).

Hori Hideharu

Lived 1575 to 1606.

Son of Hori Hidemasa.

Became daimyō of Kasugayama (where? how many koku?) on 1590. In 1598, received Takata (350,000 koku) in Echigo.

See Also

Echigo Province (pg. X), Hori Hidemasa (pg. X), Kasugayama-han (pg. X), Takata-han (pg. X)

Hori Hidemasa

Lived 1553-1590.

Fought for Ōda Nobunaga. Sided with Hideyoshi at the Battle of Yamazaki.

Horikawa-tennō

The 73rd emperor of Japan.

Lived 9 July 1079 to 19 July 1107.

Reigned 26 Nov. 1086 to 19 July 1107.

Second son of Shirakawa-tennō. Put on the throne at age nine.

See Also

Shirakawa-tennō (pg. X),

Horio Family

A daimyō family from Owari.

Horio Tadaharu

Lived 1599 to 1633.

Son of Horio Tadauji.

Tadaharu died childless and his lands reverted to the shōgunate.

Horio Tadauji

Lived 1575 to 1604.

Son of Horio Yoshiharu.

Horio Yoshiharu

Lived 1543 to 1611.

Hori Tadatoshi

Son of Hori Hideharu. Dispossessed in 1610 for maladministration.

Hori Toshishige

Son of Hori Hidemasa.

Hoshi Toru

Lived 1850 to 1901

Hosokawa Akiuji

Died 1352.

Son of Yorisada.

Hosokawa Family

A daimyō family descended from Minamoto Yoshisue.

Hosokawa Harumoto

Lived 1519 to 1563.

Hosokawa Jōzen

Brother of Akiuji.

Hosokawa Katsumoto

Lived 1430 to 11 May 1473.

Hosokawa Kiyouji

Died 1362.

Hosokawa Masamoto

Lived 1466 to 1507.

Hosokawa Mitsumoto

Lived 1358 to 1426.

Hosokawa Mochiyuki

Lived 1400 to 1442.

Hosokawa Morihiro

Prime Minister from 9 August 1993 to 28 April 1994. Replaced by Hata Tsutomu (pg XXX).

Hosokawa Sumimoto

Lived 1496 to 1520.

Hosokawa Ujihara

Died 1387.

Hosokawa Yoriharu

Lived 1299 to 1352.

Hosokawa Yorimoto

Lived 1343 to 1397.

Son of Hosokawa Yoriharu.

Hosokawa Yoriyuki

Lived 1329 to 1392.

Son of Hosokawa Yoriharu.

Hōtoku

Nengō: 1449--1451.

Hotta Family

Daimyō family from Owara. Descended from Takeshiuchi no Sukune.

Hotta Masaharu

Son of Hotta Masatora.

Hotta Masamine

Son of Masataka.

Hotta Masamori

Lived 1608 to 20 April 1651.

Father of Hotta Masatoshi.

Hotta Masamutsu

Lived 1810 to 1864.

Hotta Masanaga

Son of Masamine.

Hotta Masanaka

Lived 1660 to 1694.

Hotta Masanobu

Lived 1629 to 1677.

Son of Hotta Masamori.

Hotta Masanobu

Son of Hotta Masatomo.

Hotta Masataka

Son of Hotta Masatoshi.

Hotta Masatomo

Son of Hotta Masayasu.

Hotta Masatora

Lived 1662 to 1729.

Hotta Masatoshi

Lived 1631 to 28 Aug. 1684.

Hotta Masayasu

Son of Hotta Masanobu.

House of Peers

Hozumi Nobushige

Lived 1856 to 1926

Hyōgo Prefecture

Area: 8,387 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kōbe

Population: 5,420,000 (1996)

Hyūga Province

A province on the east coast of Kyūshū. Today Miyazaki Prefecture. Hyūga bordered on Bungo, Higo, Ōsumi, and Satsuma Provinces.

See Also

Bungo Province (pg. X), Higo Province (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X), Miyazaki Prefecture (pg. X), Ōsumi Province (pg. X), Satsuma Province (pg. X),

Ibaraki Castle – Izu Province

Ibaraki Castle

Ibaraki Prefecture

Area: 6,094 km2 (1995)

Capital: Mitō

Population: 2,970,000 (1996)

Ibara Saikaku

see Ihara Saikaku (page XXX)

Ichijō Fusaie

Lived 1445 to 1511.

Ichijō Kanesada

Lived 1542 to 1585.

Ichijō Nobutatsu

Died 1582.

Ichijō-tennō

The 66th emperor of Japan.

Lived 1 June 980 to 22 June 1011.

Reigned 23 June 986 to 13 June 1011.

Ichijō Uchimasa

Lived 1569 to 1580.

Ichikawa Danjūro

The hereditary name of the head of a group (family?) of kabuki actors. There have been at least 12 generations of them. The first was Ebizō, also known as Saigyū.

Ichikawa Fusae

Lived 1893 to 1981.

Iga Province

A province in the area that is today Mie Prefecture. Iga bordered on Ise, Ōmi, Yamato, and Yamashiro Provinces.

See Also

Ise Province (pg. X), Mie Prefecture (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Yamato Province (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X),

Ihara Saikaku

aka Ibara Saikaku

Lived 1642 to 10 Aug. 1693. Born in Ōsaka.

Prolific and popular author during the Tokugawa period. Among other works, he penned: Five Women Who Loved Love, The Life of an Amorous Man, The Life of an Amorous Woman, and This Scheming World.

Ii Naosuke

Lived 29 Oct. 1815 to 3 March 1860.

Born in Ōsaka. Son of Ii Naotaka.

A high ranking official in the Tokugawa government. Naosuke was responsible for the government's signing of treaties with the United States, Britain, France, and later other counties.

Supported the twelve year old Iemochi for shōgun, opposing Hitotsubashi Keiki.

Led the Ansei Purge.

Naosuke's actions caused great resentment and won him many enemies. He was assassinated on 3 March 1860 by 17 Mitō rōnin.

Ikeda Hayato

Lived 1899 to 1965.

Prime Minister from 19 July 1960 to 8 December 1960, 8 December 1960 to 9 December 1963, and 9 December 1963 to 9 November 1964.

Ikeda Nobuteru

Lived 1536 to 1584.

Served Oda Nobuhide, Oda Nobunaga and then Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Received a fief in Settsu and Amagasaki Castle from Nobunaga in 1579. Killed at the Battle of Nagakute.

See Also

Amagasaki Castle (pg. X), Nagakute, Battle of (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Settsu Province (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Iki Province

A province in the area that is today Nagasaki Prefecture. Iki is an island between Hizen Province and the island of Tsushima.

Iki was invaded and overrun by the Mongols in 1274 and 1281.

See Also

Hizen Province (pg. X), Mongol Invasions (pg. X), Nagasaki Prefecture (pg. X), Tsushima Province (pg. X),

Ikkō-Ikki

Imagawa Family

A daimyō family of Seiwa Genji decent.

Imagawa Yoshimoto

Died 1560.

Lost Terabe castle in 1558 when Suzuki Shigeteru left him for Oda Nobunaga and Yoshimoto's vassal Tokugawa Ieyasu was unable to retake the castle.

Yoshimoto was killed in 1560 at the battle of Okehazama, by the forces of Oda Nobunaga.

See Also

Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Terabe, Seige of (pg. X), Suzuki Shigeru (pg. X), Okehazama, Battle of (pg. X),

Imahama Castle

Imperial Rule Assistance Political Association

Imperial Way Faction

The Kodoha or “Imperial Way Faction” was an informally organized right wing association of mostly junior and field grade Imperial Army officers who sought to dismantle party influence in Japanese politics and “restore” the Emperor as an absolute ruler with the army as his main instrument of policy. Heavily influenced by such “Asia for the Asians” political philosophers as Gondo Seikei (1868-1937), Kita Ikki (1883-1937), Okawa Shumei (1886-1957) and the ideology of the Kokyrukai (Amur River or “Black Dragon” Society) political and criminal organization, the Kodoha officers, over 80% of whom were from rural farming and fishing communities, viewed the democratic process and Western-influenced materialism of urban Japanese society at the time as an emasculation and apostasy of traditional values, and they were prepared to use violence to rectify this situation. The Kodoha was effectively crippled as a serious player in the Japanese political power game after a failed coup d'etat attempt by Kodoha officers in February 1936, but not before the theories of its spiritual leader General Sadao Araki had poisoned Japanese educational policy with fanatical militarism, and even more disastrously, not before many of its less-conspicuous members were already well ensconced in fast-track elite course niches that would put them in influential policy-making positions during the crucial Pacific War years.

by M.G. Sheftall

Contributed December 2002

Sources and Suggested Reading

Hirohito by Herbert Bix

Hirohito, Behind the Myth by Edward Behr

Soldier of the Sun by Meirion and Susan Harries

The Way of the Heavenly Sword by Leonard A. Humphreys

Inaba Ittetsu

Inaba Province

A province in the area that is today Tottori Prefecture. Inaba bordered on Harima, Hōki, Mimasaka, and Tajima Provinces.

See Also

Harima Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Mimasaka Province (pg. X), Tajima Province (pg. X), Tottori Province pg. XXX

Ingyō-tennō

The 19th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 412 to 453.

Ino Tadataka

Lived 1745 to 1818.

Inoue Akira

see Inoue Nissho (page XXX)

Inoue Bunda

see Inoue Kaoru (page XXX)

Inoue Junnosuke

Lived 1869 to 1932.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Yamamoto

Finance

Sep 2, 1923

Jan 7, 1924

Hamaguchi

Finance

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

2nd Wakatsuki

Finance

Apr 14, 1931

Dec 13, 1931

Table 27 Cabinet Positions Held by Inoue Junnosuke

Inoue Kaoru

aka Inoue Bunda

Lived 1835 to 1915.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Foreign Affairs

Dec 22, 1885

Sep 16, 1887

2nd Itō

Home Affairs

Aug 8, 1892

Oct 15, 1894

2nd Itō

Prime Minister (Acting)

Nov 28, 1892

Feb 6, 1893

3rd Itō

Finance

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Table 28 Cabinet Positions Held by Inoue Kaoru

Inoue Kowashi

Lived 1843 to 1895.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Feb 7, 1888

Apr 30, 1888

Kuroda

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

1st Yamagata

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Dec 24, 1889

May 6, 1891

2nd Itō

Education

Mar 7, 1893

Aug 29, 1894

Table 29 Cabinet Positions Held by Inoue Kowashi

Inoue Nissho

aka Inoue Akira

Lived 1886 to 1967.

Inoue Tetsujiro

Lived 1856 to 1944.

Inukai Tsuyoshi

Lived 20 April 1855 to 15 May 1932.

Prime Minister from 13 December 1931 to 15 May 1932. His cabinet lasted until 26 May 1932.

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Ōkuma

Education

Oct 27, 1898

Nov 8, 1898

2nd Yamamoto

Education

Sep 2, 1923

Sep 6, 1923

2nd Yamamoto

Communications

Sep 2, 1923

Jan 7, 1924

1st Katō

Communications

Jun 11, 1924

May 30, 1925

Inukai

Foreign Affairs

Dec 13, 1931

Jan 14, 1932

Inukai

Prime Minister

Dec 13, 1931

May 15, 1932

Inukai

Home Affairs

Mar 16, 1932

Mar 25, 1932

Table 30 Cabinet Positions Held by Inukai Tsuyoshi

Name

Position

From

To

Inukai Tsuyoshi

Prime Minister

Dec 13, 1931

May 15, 1932

Yamamoto Teijirō

Agriculture & Forestry

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Mori Kaku

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Shimada Toshio

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Hata Toyosuke

Colonization

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Maeda Yonezō

Commerce & Industry

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Mitsuchi Chūzō

Communications

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Hatoyama Ichirō

Education

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Takahashi Korekiyo

Finance

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Inukai Tsuyoshi

Foreign Affairs

Dec 13, 1931

Jan 14, 1932

Yoshizawa Kenkichi

Foreign Affairs

Jan 14, 1932

May 26, 1932

Nakahashi Tokugorō

Home Affairs

Dec 13, 1931

Mar 16, 1932

Inukai Tsuyoshi

Home Affairs

Mar 16, 1932

Mar 25, 1932

Suzuki Kisaburō

Home Affairs

Mar 25, 1932

May 26, 1932

Suzuki Kisaburō

Justice

Dec 13, 1931

Mar 25, 1932

Kawamura Takeji

Justice

Mar 25, 1932

May 26, 1932

Ōsumi Mineo

Navy

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Tokonami Takejirō

Railways

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Araki Sadao

War

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Table 31 Inukai Tsuyoshi's Cabinet

Ioji

Ioji-yama

A mountain in Mikawa Province. In 1575, Takeda Katsuyori and Oda Nobunaga fought part of the Battle of Nagashino on Ioji-yama.

See Also

Mikawa Province (pg. X), Nagashino, Battle of (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Takeda Katsuyori (pg. X),

Ise Province

A province in the area that is today Mie Prefecture. Ise bordered on Iga, Kii, Mino, Ōmi, Owari, Shima, and Yamato Provinces.

Domains

Fief

Koku

Controlled by:

From

To

Matsuzaka

37000

Furuta Shigekatsu

1600


Table 32Domains in Ise Province

See Also

Furuta Shigekatsu (pg. X), Iga Province (pg. X), Kii Province (pg. X), Matsuzaka-han (pg. X), Mie Prefecture (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Shima Province (pg. X), Yamato Province (pg. X),

Ishibashi Tanzan

Lived 1884 to 1973.

Prime Minister from 23 December 1956 to 25 February 1957.

Ishida Baigan

Lived 1685 to 1744.

Ishida Mitsunari

Japanese: 石田 三成

Lived 1560 to 1600

Born in what is now Shiga Prefecture. Served Toyotomi Hideyoshi from a young age.

Mitsunari was the prime mover behind the anti-Tokugawa coalition (the Western Army) that lost the Battle of Sekigahara. Mitsunari was a better schemer than general or diplomat and this caused some friction in the coalition. At the very least Mitsunari's personality hurt morale among the commanders of the Western army and conceivably contributed to their defeat.

Fled after the defeat at Sekigahara but was captured and beheaded.

See Also

Sekigahara, Battle of (pg 307)

This entry contains some material from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishida_Mitsunari

Ishihara Kanji

see Ishiwara Kanji on page XX.

Ishii Kikujiro

Lived 1866 to 1945.

Ishikawa Prefecture

Area: 4,185 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kanazawa

Population: 1,170,000 (1996)

One of the 47 major administrative units in modern Japan. Ishikawa is located along the Sea of Japan side, right about in the middle. The Noto Peninsula (page XXX), which is part of Ishikawa, juts out into the Sea of Japan and makes it very easy to find Ishikawa on a map.

Ishikawa Sanshiro

Lived 1876 to 1956.

Ishiwara Kanji

aka Ishihara Kanji

Lived 1893 to 1981

Ishiyama Hongan-ji

Seat of the Ikkō sect after the Honganji in Kyotō was destroyed. It took Oda Nobunaga ten years to finally reduce this stronghold.

Ishizawa Taizo

Lived 1886 to 1975.

Itagaki Seishirō

Lived 21 Jan. 1885 to 23 Dec. 1948

Soldier.

Tried as a class `A' war criminal and executed.

Itagaki Taisuke

Lived 1837 to 1919.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Itō

Home Affairs

Apr 14, 1896

Sep 18, 1896

2nd Matsukata

Home Affairs

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 20, 1896

1st Ōkuma

Home Affairs

Jun 30, 1898

Nov 8, 1898

Table 33 Cabinet Positions Held by Itagaki Taisuke

Itai-Itai-Byō

A Mitsui (chemical?) plant in Gifu Prefecture released cadmium into a river and said cadmium eventually made people in Toyama sick. Doctors understood cadmium to be the cause of the illness in 1957. A movement for redress was started in 1963 and eventually 183 people were recognized by the government as suffering from the disease.

(this entry needs to be double checked as well as a lot more detail)

Itami Castle

Itō Hirobumi

Lived 2 Sept. 1841 to 26 Oct. 1909

Born into a low ranking Chōshū samurai family in 1841. Originally held anti-foreign views but later became anti to bakufu.

Secretly visited England 1863 to 1864.

Held a variety of posts in the Meiji government. Was a member of the Iwakura Mission. By 1881 he was one of the most powerful men in the government and the 1881 political crisis further cemented his power.

Visited Europe in 1882 “to study Western Constitutions” (many people believe he had already decided on the German model). Upon his return, he lead the creation of the peerage system and the cabinet system.

Was Japan's first prime minister.

President of the Privy Council: 1888 to 1890 and 1903 to 1905

Resident-General of the Protectorate of Korea from 1905 to 1909.

Assassinated by a Korean nationalist at Harbin in 1909.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Prime Minister

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

1st Itō

Foreign Affairs

Sep 16, 1887

Feb 1, 1888

Kuroda

Hanretsu

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

2nd Itō

Prime Minister

Aug 8, 1892

Sep 18, 1896

3rd Itō

Prime Minister

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

4th Itō

Prime Minister

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Table 34 Cabinet Positions Held by Itō Hirobumi

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Itō Hirobumi

Prime Minister

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Tani Kanjō

Agriculture & Commerce

Dec 22, 1885

Jul 26, 1887

Hijikata Hisamoto

Agriculture & Commerce

Jul 26, 1887

Sep 16, 1887

Kurota Kiyotaka

Agriculture & Commerce

Sep 16, 1887

Apr 30, 1888

Tanaka Mitsuaki

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Enomoto Takeaki

Communications

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Inoue Kowashi

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Feb 7, 1888

Apr 30, 1888

Yamao Yōzō

Director of Legislative Bureau

Dec 23, 1885

Feb 7, 1888

Mori Arinori

Education

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Matsukata Masayoshi

Finance

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Inoue Kaoru

Foreign Affairs

Dec 22, 1885

Sep 16, 1887

Itō Hirobumi

Foreign Affairs

Sep 16, 1887

Feb 1, 1888

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Foreign Affairs

Feb 1, 1888

Apr 30, 1888

Yamagata Aritomo

Home Affairs

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Yamada Akiyoshi

Justice

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

Dec 22, 1885

Jul 10, 1886

Ōyama Iwao

Navy

Jul 10, 1886

Jul 1, 1887

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

Jul 1, 1887

Apr 30, 1888

Ōyama Iwao

War

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Table 35 Itō Hirobumi's First Cabinet

Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Itō Hirobumi

Prime Minister

Aug 8, 1892

Sep 18, 1896

Inoue Kaoru

Prime Minister (Acting)

Nov 28, 1892

Feb 6, 1893

Gotō Shōjirō

Agriculture & Commerce

Aug 8, 1892

Jan 22, 1894

Enomoto Takeaki

Agriculture & Commerce

Jan 22, 1894

Sep 18, 1896

Itō Miyoji

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Aug 8, 1892

Sep 18, 1896

Suematsu Kenchō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Aug 8, 1892

Sep 18, 1896

Takashima Tomonosuke

Colonization

Aug 8, 1892

Sep 18, 1896

Watanabe Kunitake

Communications

Mar 17, 1895

Oct 9, 1895

Shirane Sen'ichi

Communications

Oct 9, 1895

Sep 18, 1896

Kōno Togama

Education

Aug 8, 1892

Mar 7, 1893

Inoue Kowashi

Education

Mar 7, 1893

Aug 29, 1894

Saionji Kinmochi

Education

Oct 3, 1894

Sep 18, 1896

Watanabe Kuniaki

Finance

Aug 8, 1892

Mar 17, 1895

Matsukata Masayoshi

Finance

Mar 17, 1895

Aug 27, 1895

Watanabe Kuniaki

Finance

Aug 27, 1895

Sep 18, 1896

Mutsu Munemitsu

Foreign Affairs

Aug 8, 1892

Jun 5, 1895

Saionji Kinmochi

Foreign Affairs

Jun 5, 1895

Apr 3, 1896

Mutsu Munemitsu

Foreign Affairs

Apr 3, 1896

May 30, 1896

Saionji Kinmochi

Foreign Affairs

May 30, 1896

Sep 18, 1896

Kurota Kiyotaka

Hanretsu

Mar 17, 1895

Sep 18, 1896

Inoue Kaoru

Home Affairs

Aug 8, 1892

Oct 15, 1894

Nomura Yasushi

Home Affairs

Oct 15, 1894

Feb 3, 1896

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Home Affairs

Feb 3, 1896

Apr 14, 1896

Itagaki Taisuke

Home Affairs

Apr 14, 1896

Sep 18, 1896

Yamagata Aritomo

Justice

Aug 8, 1892

Mar 11, 1893

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Justice

Mar 16, 1893

Oct 3, 1894

Nire Kagenori

Navy

Aug 8, 1892

Mar 11, 1893

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

Mar 11, 1893

Sep 18, 1896

Ōyama Iwao

War

Aug 8, 1892

Oct 9, 1894

Saigō Tsugumichi

War

Oct 9, 1894

Mar 7, 1895

Yamagata Aritomo

War

Mar 7, 1895

Apr 28, 1895

Saigō Tsugumichi

War

Apr 28, 1895

May 8, 1895

Yamagata Aritomo

War

May 8, 1895

May 26, 1895

Ōyama Iwao

War

May 26, 1895

Sep 18, 1896

Table 36 Itō Hirobumi's Second Cabinet

Third Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Itō Hirobumi

Prime Minister

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Itō Miyoji

Agriculture & Commerce

Jan 12, 1898

Apr 26, 1898

Kaneko Kentarō

Agriculture & Commerce

Apr 26, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Samejima Takenosuke

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Ume Kenjirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Suematsu Kenchō

Communications

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Saionji Kinmochi

Education

Jan 12, 1898

Apr 30, 1898

Toyama Shōichi

Education

Apr 30, 1898

Jun 30, 1988

Inoue Kaoru

Finance

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Nishi Tokujirō

Foreign Affairs

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Home Affairs

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Sone Arasuke

Justice

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Katsura Tarō

War

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

Table 37 Itō Hirobumi's Third Cabinet

Fourth Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Itō Hirobumi

Prime Minister

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Hayashi Yūzō

Agriculture & Commerce

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Samejima Takenosuke

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Okuda Yoshindo

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Hoshi Tōru

Communications

Oct 19, 1900

Dec 22, 1900

Hara Kei

Communications

Dec 22, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Matsuda Masahisa

Education

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Watanabe Kunitake

Finance

Oct 19, 1900

May 14, 1901

Saionji Kinmochi

Finance

May 14, 1901

Jun 2, 1901

Katō Takaaki

Foreign Affairs

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Saionji Kinmochi

Hanretsu

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Suematsu Kenchō

Home Affairs

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Kaneko Kentarō

Justice

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Yamamoto Gonnohyōe

Navy

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Katsura Tarō

War

Oct 19, 1900

Dec 23, 1900

Kodama Gentarō

War

Dec 23, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

Table 38Itō Hirobumi's Fourth Cabinet

See Also

Chōshū-han (pg. X), Iwakura Mission (pg. X), Political Crisis of 1881 (pg. X), Table of Prime Ministers (pg. X), Korea, Protectorate of (pg. X), Harbin (pg. X),

Itoku-tennō

The 4th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 510 to 477 B.C.

Itō Miyoji

Lived 7 May 1857 to 19 Feb. 1934.

Politician.

Itō Noe

Lived 21 Jan. 1895 to 16 Sept. 1923

From Fukuoka.

Itō Noe was active in the early 1900's as a feminist and an anarchist.

Joined the Seitosha in 1913.

Lived and worked with the anarchist Ōsugi Sakae from 1916. Less emphasis on feminism and more on anarchism.

Arrested, along with a nephew and Ōsugi, after the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923. All three were murdered by the police shortly afterwards.

See Also

Anarchism (pg. X), Feminism (pg. X), Great Kanto Earthquake (pg. 116), Ōsugi Sakae (pg. 270), Seitosha (pg. X),

Iwaki Province

Today part of Fukushima and Miyagi Prefectures. Iwaki bordered on Hitachi, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Shimotsuke, and Uzen Provinces.

See Also

Fukushima Prefecture (pg. X), Hitachi Province (pg. X), Iwashiro Province (pg. X), Miyagi Prefecture (pg. X), Rikuzen Province (pg. X), Shimotsuke Province (pg. X), Uzen Province (pg. X),

Iwakura Mission

Lasted from 1871 to 1873

Iwakura Tomomi

Lived 15 Sept. 1825 to 20 July 1883.

Iwami Province

A province in the area that is today part of Shimane Prefecture. Iwami bordered on Aki, Bingo, Izumo, Nagato, and Suō Provinces.

See Also

Aki Province (pg. X), Bingo Province (pg. X), Izumi Province (pg. X), Nagato Province (pg. X), Shimane Prefecture (pg. X), Suō Province (pg. X),

Iwamura, Seige of

Akiyama Nobutomo took the castle from the widow of Tōyama Kagetō.

See Also

Akiyama Nobutomo (pg. X), Tōyama Kagetō (pg. X)

Iwasaki Yataro

Lived 1835 to 1885.

Iwashiro Province

A province in the area that is today Fukushima Prefecture. Iwashiro bordered on Echigo, Iwaki, Kōzuke, Shimotsuke, and Uzen Provinces.

See Also

Echigo Province (pg. X), Fukushima Prefecture (pg. X), Iwaki Province (pg. X), Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Shimotsuke Province (pg. X), Uzen Province (pg. X),

Iwate Prefecture

Area: 15,278 km2 (1995)

Capital: Moriaki

Population: 1,430,000 (1996)

Iyo Province

A province in the area that is today Ehime Prefecture on Shikoku. Iyo bordered on Awa, Sanuki, and Tosa Provinces.

See Also

Awa Province (pg. X), Ehime Prefecture (pg. X), Sanuki Province (pg. X), Shikoku (pg. X), Tosa Province (pg. X),

Izumi Province

A province in the area that is today part of Ōsaka Prefecture. Izumi bordered on Kawachi, Kii, and Settsu Provinces.

See Also

Kawachi Province (pg. X), Kii Province (pg. X), Ōsaka Prefecture (pg. X), Settsu Province (pg. X),

Izumo Province

A province in the area that is today part of Shimane Prefecture. Izumo bordered on Bingo, Hōki, and Iwami Provinces.

See Also

Bingo Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Iwami Province (pg. X), Shimane Prefecture (pg. X),

Izu Province

A province in the area that is today part of Shizuoka Prefecture. Izu bordered on Sagami and Suruga Provinces.

See Also

Sagami Province (pg. X), Shizuoka Prefecture (pg. X), Suruga Province (pg. X),

Japan Communist Party – Jurakutei Castle

Japan Communist Party

Japan Exchange and Teaching Program

aka JET Program

The JET Program brings young people to Japan to act as ALT's (Assistant Language Teachers) in Japanese schools. The program is run by several ministries of the Japanese government, including the Foreign Ministry and Mombusho, the Ministry of Sports, Education, and Culture. Participants, who are selected by a rather opaque process that may involve throwing darts, must have a pulse and a college degree (in what doesn't seem to matter).

Participants are given one year contracts worth about 3 million yen. They may renew this contract upto twice --- thus the maximum stay on the JET Program is three years, although most participants choose to leave after one or two years.

While the government's plan possibly involved sending lots of young people home with wonderful memories of Japan --- PR in other words --- the reality is that the government is sending a lot of foreigners home with memories of how Japan and the Japanese education system really are. Whether this will backfire in the government's collective face remains to be seen.

Japan Fabian Society

Japan Socialist Party

aka JSP

JET Program

see Japan Exchange and Teaching Program on page XXX.

Jian

Nengō: 1021--1023.

aka Chian.

Jiji Shinpō

Jimmu-tennō

The 1st emperor of Japan.

Reigned 660 to 585 B.C.

Mythological of course.

Jingo-keiun

Nengō: 767--769.

Jinki

Nengō: 724--728.

aka Shinki.

Jireki

Nengō: 1065--1068.

aka Chiryaku.

Jishō

Nengō: 1177--1180.

aka Jijō.

Jitō-tennō

Empress.

Lived 645 to 22 Dec. 702.

The 41st ruler of Japan.

Reigned 1 Jan. 690 to 1 Aug. 697.

Jōei

Nengō: 1232--1232.

Jōgan

Nengō: 859--876.

aka Jōkan.

Jōgen (976)

Nengō: 976–977.

aka Teigen.

Jōgen (1207)

Nengō: 1207--1210.

aka Shōgen.

Jōhō

Nengō: 1074--1076.

aka Shōhō.

Jōji

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1362--1367.

Jokan

Nengō:

Jōkyō

Nengō: 1684--1687.

aka Teikyō.

Jōkyū

Nengō: 1219--1221.

aka Shōkyū.

Jomei-tennō

The 34th emperor of Japan.

Lived 593 to 9 Oct. 641.

Reigned 4 Jan. 629 to 9 Oct. 641.

Jōō (1222)

Japanese: 貞応

Nengō: 1222-1223

aka Teiō

Jōō (1652)

Nengō: 1652--1654.

aka Shōō.

Jōtoku

Nengō: 1097--1098.

aka Shōtoku.

Juei

Nengō: 1182--1183.

Junna-tennō

The 53rd emperor of Japan.

Lived 786 to 8 May 840.

Reigned 16 April 823 to 28 Feb. 833.

Junnin-tennō

The 47th emperor of Japan.

Lived 733 to 23 Oct. 765.

Reigned 1 Aug. 758 to 9 Oct. 764.

Juntoku-tennō

The 84th emperor of Japan.

Lived 10 Sept. 1197 to 12 Sept. 1242.

Reigned 25 Nov. 1210 to 20 April 1221.

Jurakutei Castle

In Kyōto. Built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Built (completed?) in 1586. Demolished in 1595.

Kaei – Kyūshū Campaign

Kaei

Nengō: 1848--1853.

Kaga Province

A province in the area that is today part of Ishikawa Prefecture. Kaga bordered on Echizen, Etchū, Hida, and Noto Provinces.

See Also

Echizen Province (pg. X), Etchū Province (pg. X), Hida Province (pg. X), Ishikawa Prefecture (pg. X), Noto Province (pg. X)

Kagawa Prefecture

Area: 1,875 km2 (1995)

Capital: Takamatsu

Population: 1,030,000 (1996)

Kagawa Toyohiko

Lived 1888 to 1960.

Kagen

Nengō: 1303--1305.

Kagoshima City

Japanese: 鹿児島市 (Kagoshima-shi)

The capital of Kagoshima Prefecture.

Kagoshima is at the southwest tip of the Kyūshū. It has been nicknamed the “Naples of Japan” for its bay location, hot weather and impressive volcano, Sakurajima.

As of 2003, the city has an estimated population of 554,136 and the density of 1,911.41 persons per km². The total area is 289.91 km².

Kagoshima is a well-equipped cosmopolitan city, with an international airport, a full complement of hotels, large shopping districts and malls, served by trams, and probably the finest Satsuma region cuisine: kibi (tiny fish), tonkatsu (caramelised pork, as opposed to the breaded version encountered elsewhere in Japan), smoked eel, and Karukan (sweet cakes made from steamed yam and rice flour). A large, modern aquarium has been installed on the old docks overlooking the volcano. The exceptional traditional Japanese garden of Senganen (Isoteien) is just outside the city.

History

The British Navy bombarded Kagoshima in 1863 to punish the Satsuma daimyō for the murder of Charles Richardson on the Tōkaidō highway the previous year, and the refusal to pay an indemnity in compensation. (See A Diplomat in Japan by Sir Ernest Satow.)

Japan's industrial revolution may be said to have started here, stimulated by the seventeen young men of Satsuma broke the Tokugawa ban on foreign travel to travel abroad and returned to share the benefits of the best of Western science and technology. They are commemorated in a large statue outside the city's main train station.

Kagoshima was the scene of the last stand of Saigō Takamori, who is famous both for being one of the leaders of the Meiji Restoration and for later leading a revolt against the new government.

Kagoshima was the birthplace of Tōgō Heihachirō, who travelled to England to study naval science between 1871 and 1878. Tōgō's role as Chief Admiral of the Grand Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Russo-Japanese War made him a legend in Japanese military history, and earned him the nickname “Nelson of the Orient” in Britain. He led the Grand Fleet to two startling victories in 1904 and 1905, completely destroying Russia as a naval power in the East, and thereby contributing to the failed revolution in Russia in 1905.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima%2C_Kagoshima

Kagoshima Prefecture

Area: 9,186 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kagoshima

Population: 1,800,000 (1996)

Kahō

Nengō: 1094--1095.

Kaifu Toshiki

Prime Minister from 10 August 1989 to 28 February 1990 and again 28 February 1990 to 5 November 1991. Replaced by Miyazawa Kiichi (pg XXX).

Kaika-tennō

The 9th Emperor of Japan.

Lived 200 to 98 B.C. (?)

Reigned 158 to 98 B.C.

The third son of the emperor Kōgen.

With dates like these, this emperor is mythological, and should be taken with a salt tablet.

Kaikei

Kai Province

A province in the area that is today Yamanashi Prefecture. Kai bordered on Kōzuke, Musashi, Sagami, Shinano, and Suruga Provinces.

See Also

Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Musashi Province (pg. X), Sagami Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X), Suruga Province (pg. X), Yamanashi Prefecture (pg. X),

Kaiseitō

Kajō (848)

Nengō: 848--850.

aka Kashō.

Kajō (1106)

Nengō: 1106--1107.

aka Kashō.

Kakei

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1387--1388.

Kakinomoto no Hitomaru

Lived 685 to 705.

Kakitsu

Nengō: 1441--1443.

Kamakura Period

The Kamakura period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1185 to 1333. The period marks the governance of the Kamakura shōgunate that was officially established in 1192 by the first Kamakura shōgun Minamoto Yoritomo.

The Kamakura period ended in 1333 with the destruction of the shōgunate and the short reestablishment of imperial rule under th Emperor Go-Daigo by Ashikaga Takauji, Nitta Yoshisada, and Kusunoki Masashige.

The Kamakura period is also said to be the beginning of the Japanese Middle Ages which also includes the Muromachi period and the beginning of the Japanese Feudal Period which lasted until the Meiji Restoration.

Bakufu and the Hojo Regency

The Kamakura period (1185-1333) marks the transition to the Japanese "medieval" era, a nearly 700-year period in which the emperor, the court, and the traditional central government were left intact but were largely relegated to ceremonial functions. Civil, military, and judicial matters were controlled by the bushi class, the most powerful of whom was the de facto national ruler. The term feudalism is generally used to describe this period, being accepted by scholars as applicable to medieval Japan as well as to medieval Europe. Both had land-based economies, vestiges of a previously centralized state, and a concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded with fiefs of their own. The fief holders exercised local military rule and public power related to the holding of land. This period in Japan differed from the old shoen system in its pervasive military emphasis.

Once Minamoto Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home in Kamakura. He called his government a bakufu (tent government), but because he was given the title seii taishogun by the emperor, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the shōgunate. Yoritomo followed the Fujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board, a board of retainers, and a board of inquiry. After confiscating Taira estates in central and western Japan, he had the imperial court appoint stewards for the estates and constables for the provinces. As shōgun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general. The Kamakura bakufu was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against the Fujiwara in the north, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. The old court resided in Kyōto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.

Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his son Yoriie became shōgun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern bushi families. By the early thirteenth century, a regency had been established for the shōgun by his maternal grandparents-- members of the Hojo family, a branch of the Taira that had allied itself with the Minamoto in 1180. Under the Hojo, the bakufu became powerless, and the shōgun, often a member of the Fujiwara family or even an imperial prince, was merely a figurehead.

With the protector of the emperor a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyōto and Kamakura, and in 1221 a war--the Jokyu Incident--broke out between the cloistered emperor and the H j regent. The Hojo forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under direct bakufu control. The shōgun's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court was allowed to retain extensive estates with which to sustain the imperial splendor the bakufu needed to help sanction its rule.

Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hojo regency. In 1225 the Council of State was established, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority at Kamakura. The H j regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law--the Joei Code--in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices in Kyōto were still based on 500-year-old Confucian principles, the Joei Code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governing inheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and remained in effect for the next 635 years.

As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. The Hojoki (An Account of My Hut) describes the turmoil of the period in terms of the Buddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. The Heike monogatari (Tale of the Heike) narrated the rise and fall of the Taira (also known as the Heike), replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in the Shin kokinshu wakashu (New Collection of Ancient and Modern Times), of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.

The Flourishing of Buddhism

In the time of disunity and violence, deepening pessimism increased the appeal of the search for salvation. Kamakura was the age of the great popularization of Buddhism. Two new sects, Jodo (Pure Land) and Zen (Meditation), dominated the period. The old Heian sects had been quite esoteric and appealed more to the intellectuals than to the masses. The Mount Hiei monasteries had become politically powerful but appealed primarily to those capable of systematic study of the sect's teachings. This situation gave rise to the Jodo sect, based on unconditional faith and devotion and prayer to Amida Buddha. Zen rejected all temporal and scriptural authority, stressing moral character rather than intellectual attainments, an emphasis that appealed to the military class. Growing numbers of the military class turned to Zen masters, regarded as embodiments of truth.

Mongol Invasions

The repulsions of two Mongol invasions were momentous events in Japanese history. Japanese relations with China had been terminated in the mid-ninth century after the deterioration of late Tang China and the turning inward of the Heian court. Some commercial contacts were maintained with southern China in later centuries, but Japanese pirates made the open seas dangerous. At a time when the bakufu had little interest in foreign affairs and ignored communications from China and Koryo (as Korea was then known), news arrived in 1268 of a new Mongol regime in Beijing. Its leader, Khubilai Khan, demanded that the Japanese pay tribute to the new Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) and threatened reprisals if they failed to do so. Unused to such threats, Kyōto raised the diplomatic counter of Japan's divine origin, rejected the Mongol demands, dismissed the Korean messengers, and started defensive preparations. After further unsuccessful entreaties, the first Mongol invasion took place in 1274. More than 600 ships carried a combined Mongol, Chinese, and Korean force of 23,000 troops armed with catapults, combustible missiles, and bows and arrows. In fighting, these soldiers grouped in close cavalry formations against samurai, who were accustomed to one-on-one combat. Local Japanese forces at Hakata, on northern Kyūshū, defended against the superior mainland force, which, after one day of fighting was decimated by the onslaught of a sudden typhoon. Khubilai realized that nature, not military incompetence, had been the cause of his forces' failure so, in 1281, he launched a second invasion. Seven weeks of fighting took place in northwestern Kyūshū before another typhoon struck, again destroying the Mongol fleet.

Although Shinto priests attributed the two defeats of the Mongols to a "divine wind" (kamikaze), a sign of heaven's special protection of Japan, the invasion left a deep impression on the bakufu leaders. Long-standing fears of the Chinese threat to Japan were reinforced, and the Korean Peninsula became regarded as "an arrow pointed at the heart of Japan." The Japanese victory, however, gave the bushi a sense of fighting superiority that remained with Japan's soldiers until 1945. The victory also convinced the bushi of the value of the bakufu form of government.

The Mongol war had been a drain on the economy, and new taxes had to be levied to maintain defensive preparations for the future. The invasions also caused disaffection among those who expected recompense for their help in defeating the Mongols. There were no lands or other rewards to be given, however, and such disaffection, combined with overextension and the increasing defense costs, led to a decline of the Kamakura bakufu. Additionally, inheritances had divided family properties, and landowners increasingly had to turn to moneylenders for support. Roving bands of ronin further threatened the stability of the bakufu.

Civil War

The Hojo reacted to the ensuing chaos by trying to place more power among the various great family clans. To further weaken the Kyōto court, the bakufu decided to allow two contending imperial lines--known as the Southern Court or junior line and the Northern Court or senior line--to alternate on the throne. The method worked for several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne as Emperor Go-Daigo (r. 1318- 39). Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the bakufu, and he openly defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the bakufu exiled Go-Daigo, but loyalist forces rebelled. They were aided by Ashikaga Takauji (1305-58), a constable who turned against Kamakura when dispatched to put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time, another eastern chieftain rebelled against the bakufu, which quickly disintegrated, and the Hojo were defeated.

In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-century Confucian practices. This period of reform, known as the Kemmu Restoration (1333-36), aimed at strengthening the position of the emperor and reasserting the primacy of the court nobles over the bushi. The reality, however, was that the forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the Hojo, not on supporting the emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The long War Between the Courts lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was driven from Kyōto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who became the new shōgun.

See Also

References and Suggested Reading

This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. - Japan located at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html.

Modified from the article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura_period

Kamakura Shōgunate

Kambun

Nengō: 1661--1672.

Kameyama-tennō

The 90th emperor of Japan.

Lived 27 May 1249 to 15 Sept. 1305.

Reigned 26 Nov. 1259 to 26 Jan. 1274.

Kamikaze (1)

`Kamikaze' translates to English as `Divine Wind'. It is the name given to the typhoon that destroyed the Mongol fleet supporting that invasion of Japan. The ships lucky enough to survive limped back to Korea and the Mongols never again attempted to invade Japan.

The Japanese interpreted the storm as a sort of divine protection of their islands, thus `kamikaze'.

Kamikaze (2)

In World War II / the Pacific War, kamikaze pilots flew planes specially outfitted with bombs into American ships. It was a last ditch attemp to turn the tide of battle in the Pacific. It was not effective.

Kaminojo, Seige of

Took place in 1562.

Udono Nagamochi (who?) defended the castle for the Imagawa (?). Tokugawa Ieyasu beseiged the castle and was able to take it after using ninja.

Kami

Japan word meaning `god' or something like `spirit' in the sense of `soul' or `divine'. Thus, a kami could be a god (lower case g) or the soul / spirit of a departed person. Basically it is something supernatural that is to be respected (but not feared?).

Kammu-tennō

The 50th emperor of Japan.

Lived 737 to 17 March 806.

Reigned 3 April 781 to 17 March 806.

Kampō

Nengō: 1741--1743.

Kampyō

Nengō: 889--897.

Kanagawa Prefecture

Area: 2,414 km2 (1995)

Capital: Yokohama

Population: 8,170,000 (1996)

Kanayama, Battle of

Kanazawa Castle

Maeda Toshinaga built and resided in Kanazawa Castle.

See Also

Maeda Toshinaga (pg. X),

Kanazawa City

Kanazawa is the capital of Ishikawa Prefecture. Population is roughly 450,000. It is famous for, among other things, its gold-leaf products, Kenrokuen, and the samurai district (the bukeyashiki).

See Also

Kenrokuen (pg. X), Bukeyashiki (Samurai District) (pg. X),

Kan'eiji

Kan'ei

Nengō: 1624--1643.

Kaneko Kentarō

Lived 4 Feb. 1853 to 16 May 1942.

Kan'en

Nengō: 1748--1750.

Kangen

Nengō: 1243--1246.

Kanji

Nengō: 1087--1093.

Kanki

Nengō: 1229--1231.

Kankō

Nengō: 1004--1011.

Kanna

Nengō: 985--986.

aka Kanwa.

Kannin

Nengō: 1017--1020.

Kanno Sugako

aka Kanno Suga.

Lived 1881 to 1911.

Kanno Suga

see Kanno Sugako (page XXX)

Kan'ō

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1350--1351.

Kanō Eitoku

Lived 13 Jan. 1543 to 14 Sept. 1590.

Momoyama era artist.

Kanō Jigorō

Lived 28 Oct. 1860 to 4 May 1938

Kanō Jigorō is credited with creating the modern sport of Judo out of the older and more violent fighting arts of the samurai.

Kansei

Nengō: 1789--1800.

Kanshō

Nengō: 1460--1465.

Kantoku

Nengō: 1044--1045.

Kanwa

Nengō: 985--986.

Also known as Kanna. See that entry for more details.

Kaō

Nengō: 1169--1170.

Kareki

Nengō: 1326--1328.

Also known as Karyaku. See that entry for more details.

Karoku

Nengō: 1225--1226.

Karyaku

Nengō: 1326--1328.

aka Kareki.

Kashō

Nengō: 848--850.

Kataoka Kenkichi

Lived 26 Dec. 1843 (1844?) to 31 Oct. 1903.

Katayama Sen

Lived 3 Dec. 1859 (1860) to 5 Nov. 1933.

Katayama Tetsu

Lived 28 July 1887 to 30 May 1978.

Prime Minister from 24 May 1947 to 10 March 1948. Was also briefly Minister of Agriculture and Forestry in his own cabinet --- from 4 November 1947 13 December 1947.

Katei

Nengō: 1235--1237.

Katō Hiroyuki

Lived 23 June 1836 to 9 Feb 1916.

Kato Kazue

see Misora Hibari on page XXX.

Katō Komei

see Katō Takaaki on page XXX.

Katō Takaaki

aka Katō Komei.

Lived 3 Jan. 1860 to 28 Jan 1926.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

4th Itō

Foreign Affairs

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

1st Saionji

Foreign Affairs

Jan 7, 1906

Mar 3, 1906

3rd Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Jan 29, 1913

Feb 20, 1913

2nd Ōkuma

Foreign Affairs

Apr 16, 1914

Aug 10, 1915

1st Katō (Takaaki)

Prime Minister

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

2nd Katō (Takaaki)

Prime Minister

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Table 39Cabinet Positions Held by Katō Takaaki

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Katō Takaaki

Prime Minister

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Takahashi Korekiyo

Agriculture & Commerce

Jun 11, 1924

Apr 1, 1925

Takahashi Korekiyo

Agriculture & Forestry

Apr 1, 1925

Apr 17, 1925

Okazaki Kunisuke

Agriculture & Forestry

Apr 17, 1925

Aug 2, 1925

Egi Tasuku

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Tsukamoto Seiji

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Takahashi Korekiyo

Commerce & Industry

Apr 1, 1925

Apr 17, 1925

Noda Utarō

Commerce & Industry

Apr 17, 1925

Aug 2, 1925

Inukai Tsuyoshi

Communications

Jun 11, 1924

May 30, 1925

Adachi Kenzō

Communications

May 31, 1925

Aug 2, 1925

Okada Ryōhei

Education

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Hamaguchi Osachi

Finance

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Shidehara Kijurō

Foreign Affairs

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Wakatsuki Reijirō

Home Affairs

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Yokota Sennosuke

Justice

Jun 11, 1924

Feb 5, 1925

Takahashi Korekiyo

Justice

Feb 5, 1925

Feb 9, 1925

Ogawa Heikichi

Justice

Feb 9, 1925

Aug 2, 1925

Takarabe Takeshi

Navy

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Sengoku Mitsugu

Railways

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Ugaki Kazushige

War

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

Table 40 Katō Takaaki's First Cabinet

Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Katō Takaaki

Prime Minister

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Hayami Seiji

Agriculture & Forestry

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Tsukamoto Seiji

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Yamakawa Tadao

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Kataoka Naoharu

Commerce & Industry

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Adachi Kenzō

Communications

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Okada Ryōhei

Education

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Hamaguchi Osachi

Finance

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Shidehara Kijurō

Foreign Affairs

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Wakatsuki Reijirō

Home Affairs

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Egi Tasuku

Justice

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Takarabe Takeshi

Navy

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Sengoku Mitsugu

Railways

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Ugaki Kazushige

War

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

Table 41Katō Takaaki's Second Cabinet

Katō Tomosaburō

Lived 1861 to 1923.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Ōkuma

Navy

Aug 10, 1915

Oct 9, 1916

Terauchi

Navy

Oct 9, 1916

Sep 29, 1918

Hara

Navy

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1912

Takahashi

Navy

Nov 13, 1921

Jun 12, 1922

Katō (Tomosaburō)

Navy

Jun 12, 1922

May 15, 1923

Katō (Tomosaburō)

Prime Minister

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Table 42 Cabinet Positions Held by Katō Tomosaburō

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Katō Tomosaburō

Prime Minister

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Arai Kentarō

Agriculture & Commerce

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Miyata Mitsuo

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Baba Eiichi

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Maeda Toshisada

Communications

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Kamata Eikichi

Education

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Ichiki Otohiko

Finance

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Uchida Kōsai

Foreign Affairs

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Mizuno Rentarō

Home Affairs

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Okano Keijirō

Justice

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Katō Tomosaburō

Navy

Jun 12, 1922

May 15, 1923

Takarabe Takeshi

Navy

May 15, 1923

Sep 2, 1923

Ōki Enkichi

Railways

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Yamanashi Hanzō

War

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Table 43 Katō Tomosaburō's Cabinet

Katsu Awa

see Katsu Kaishu on page XXX

Katsu Kaishu

aka Katsu Awa

aka Katsu Rintaro

Lived 1823 to 1899.

Katsura Tarō

Lived 28 Nov 1847 to 10 Oct 1913.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

3rd Itō

War

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

1st Ōkuma

War

Jun 30, 1898

Nov 8, 1898

2nd Yamagata

War

Nov 8, 1898

Oct 19, 1900

4th Itō

War

Oct 19, 1900

Dec 23, 1900

1st Katsura

Prime Minister

Jun 2, 1901

Jan 7, 1906

1st Katsura

Home Affairs

Oct 12, 1903

Feb 20, 1904

1st Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Jul 3, 1905

Oct 18, 1905

1st Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Nov 4, 1905

Jan 2, 1906

1st Katsura

Education

Dec 14, 1905

Jan 7, 1906

2nd Katsura

Prime Minister

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

2nd Katsura

Finance

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

3rd Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Dec 21, 1912

Jan 29, 1913

3rd Katsura

Prime Minister

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Table 44Cabinet Positions Held by Katsura Tarō

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Katsura Tarō

Prime Minister

Jun 2, 1901

Jan 7, 1906

Hirata Tōsuke

Agriculture & Commerce

Jun 2, 1901

Jul 17, 1903

Kiyoura Keigo

Agriculture & Commerce

Jul 17, 1903

Jan 7, 1906

Shibata Kamon

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jun 2, 1901

Jan 7, 1906

Okuda Yoshindo

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jun 2, 1901

Sep 26, 1902

Ichiki Kitokurō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Sep 26, 1902

Jan 7, 1906

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Communications

Jun 2, 1901

Jul 17, 1903

Sone Arasuke

Communications

Jul 17, 1903

Sep 22, 1903

Ōura Kanetake

Communications

Sep 22, 1903

Jan 7, 1906

Kikuchi Dairoku

Education

Jun 2, 1901

Jul 17, 1903

Kodama Gentarō

Education

Jul 17, 1903

Sep 22, 1903

Kubota Yuzuru

Education

Sep 22, 1903

Dec 14, 1905

Katsura Tarō

Education

Dec 14, 1905

Jan 7, 1906

Sone Arasuke

Finance

Jun 2, 1901

Jan 7, 1906

Sone Arasuke

Foreign Affairs

Jun 2, 1901

Sep 21, 1901

Komura Jūtarō

Foreign Affairs

Sep 21, 1901

Jul 3, 1905

Komura Jūtarō

Foreign Affairs

Jan 2, 1905

Jan 7, 1905

Katsura Tarō

Foreign Affairs

Jul 3, 1905

Oct 18, 1905

Komura Jūtarō

Foreign Affairs

Oct 18, 1905

Nov 4, 1905

Katsura Tarō

Foreign Affairs

Nov 4, 1905

Jan 2, 1906

Utsumi Tadakatsu

Home Affairs

Jun 2, 1901

Jul 15, 1903

Kodama Gentarō

Home Affairs

Jul 15, 1903

Oct 12, 1903

Katsura Tarō

Home Affairs

Oct 12, 1903

Feb 20, 1904

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Home Affairs

Feb 20, 1904

Sep 16, 1905

Kiyoura Keigo

Home Affairs

Sep 16, 1905

Jan 7, 1906

Kiyoura Keigo

Justice

Jun 2, 1901

Sep 22, 1903

Hatano Takanao

Justice

Sep 22, 1903

Jan 7, 1906

Yamamoto Gonnohyōe

Navy

Jun 2, 1901

Jan 7, 1906

Kodama Gentarō

War

Jun 2, 1901

Mar 27, 1902

Terauchi Masatake

War

Mar 27, 1902

Jan 7, 1906

Table 45 Katsura Tarō's First Cabinet

Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Katsura Tarō

Prime Minister

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Ōura Kanetake

Agriculture & Commerce

Jul 14, 1908

Mar 26, 1910

Komatsubara Eitarō

Agriculture & Commerce

Mar 28, 1910

Sep 3, 1910

Ōura Kanetake

Agriculture & Commerce

Sep 3, 1910

Aug 30, 1911

Shibata Kamon

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Yasuhiro Ban'ichirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Gotō Shinpei

Communications

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Komatsubara Eitarō

Education

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Katsura Tarō

Finance

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Terauchi Masatake

Foreign Affairs

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 27, 1908

Komura Jūtarō

Foreign Affairs

Aug 27, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Hirata Tōsuke

Home Affairs

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Okabe Nagamoto

Justice

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Saitō Makoto

Navy

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Terauchi Masatake

War

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Table 46Katsura Tarō's Second Cabinet

Third Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Katsura Tarō

Prime Minister

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Nakakōji Ren

Agriculture & Commerce

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Egi Tasuku

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Ichiki Kitokurō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Gotō Shinpei

Communications

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Shibata Kamon

Education

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Wakatsuki Reijirō

Finance

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Katsura Tarō

Foreign Affairs

Dec 21, 1912

Jan 29, 1913

Katō Takaaki

Foreign Affairs

Jan 29, 1913

Feb 20, 1913

Ōura Kanetake

Home Affairs

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Matsumuro Itaru

Justice

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Saitō Makoto

Navy

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Kigoshi Yasutsuna

War

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

Table 47Katsura Tarō's Third Cabinet

Katsu Rintaro

see Katsu Kaishu on page XXX.

Kawachi Province

A province in the area that is today a part of Ōsaka Prefecture. Kawachi bordered on Izumi, Kii, Settsu, Yamashiro, and Yamato Provinces.

See Also

Izumi Province (pg. X), Kii Province (pg. X), Ōsaka Prefecture (pg. X), Settsu Province (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X), Yamato Province (pg. X),

Kawaji Toshiyoshi

Kawakami Hajime

Lived 1879 to 1946.

Kawamoto Daisaku

Kawanakajima, Battles of

Between 1553 and 1563, Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin fought each other several times in the Kawanakajima area of northeastern Shinano. None of the battles was particularly decisive and according to Sansom21 [sansom_1961] none of the men involved showed any signs of military genius, leading Sansom to conclude that Shingen and Kenshin were not entirely deserving of their reputations.

See Also

Shinano Province (pg. X), Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Uesugi Kenshin (pg. X),

Kazan-tennō

The 65th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 984 to 986.

Kazusa Province

A province in the area that is today a part of Chiba Prefecture. Kazusa bordered on Awa and Shimōsa Provinces.

See Also

Awa Province (pg. X), Chiba Prefecture (pg. X), Shimōsa Province (pg. X),

Keian

Nengō: 1648--1651.

Keichō

Nengō: 1596--1614.

Keikō-tennō

The 12th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 71 to 130.

Keiō

Nengō: 1865--1867.

Keitai-tennō

The 26th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 507 to 531.

Keiun

Nengō: 704--707.

Kemmu

Nengō: 1334--1335.

This one needs some explanation soon.

Kempō

Nengō: 1213--1218.

Kenchō

Nengō: 1249--1255.

Ken'ei

Nengō: 1206--1206.

Kengen

Nengō: 1302--1302.

Kenji

Nengō: 1275--1277.

Kenkyū

Nengō: 1190--1198.

Kennin

Nengō: 1201--1203.

Kenrokuen

A famous garden / park in Kanazawa, Ishikawa-ken. The garden was once part of the Maeda family lands, situated near the castle. It is now one of the three most famous gardens in Japan and a major tourist attraction.

See Also

Kanazawa Castle (pg. X), Kanazawa City (pg. X), Maeda Family (pg. X),

Kenryaku

Nengō: 1211--1212.

Kenseikai

Ken

see Prefectures on page XXX.

Kentoku

Nengō: 1370--1371.

Kenzō-tennō

The 23rd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 485 to 487.

Kido Kōichi

Lived 18 July 1889 to 6 April 1977. Grandson of Kido Kōin.

Lord Privy Seal from 1940 to 1945.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

First Konoe

Education

Oct 22, 1937

May 26, 1938

First Konoe

Welfare

Jan 11, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Hiranuma

Home Affairs

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Table 48 Cabinet Positions Held by Kido Kōichi

Tried as a Class `A' War Criminal. Released from his sentence of life imprisonment in 1953 for reasons of health. But managed to hang on for another 24 years.

Kido Kōin

aka Kido Takayoshi and Katsura Kogorō.

Lived 26 June 1833 to 26 May 1877. Grandfather of Kido Kōichi.

Active in the Meiji Restoration. Played a prominent role in the abolition of the han. Was a member of the Iwakura Mission.

See Also

Abolition of the Domains (pg. X), Iwakura Mission (pg. X), Meiji Restoration (pg. X),

Kido Takayoshi

See Kido Kōin, on page XXX.

Kii Province

A province in the area that is today a part of Mie and Wakayama Prefectures. Kii bordered on Ise, Izumi, Kawachi, Shima, and Yamato Provinces.

See Also

Ise Province (pg. X), Kawachi Province (pg. X), Mie Prefecture (pg. X), Shima Province (pg. X), Wakayama Prefecture (pg. X), Yamato Province (pg. X)

Kikkawa Motoharu

Lived 1530 to 15 Nov. 1586.

A son of Mōri Motonari. Adopted by Kikkawa Okitsune. Motoharu was the father of Motonaga (his heir), Motouji, Hiroie, and Hiromasa.

Kimmei-tennō

The Xxth emperor of Japan.

Died 571. Reigned 539 to 571.

Kim Ok-kyun

Kindai Shiso

Journal whose name translates as Modern Thought.

Kinkakuji

Often called “The Golden Pavillion” in English.

Kinokuniya Bunzaemon

Lived 1669(?) to 24 April 1734.

Kinoshita Iesada

Kinoshita Naoe

Lived 8 Sept. 1869 to 5 Nov. 1937.

A native of Nagano. Novelist. Christian.

Kira Family

Kishida Toshiko

Lived 1864 to 1901.

Kishi Nobusuke

Lived 13 Nov. 1896 to 7 Aug. 1987.

Politician. Native of Yamaguchi.

Prime Minister from 25 February 1957 to 12 June 1958 and 12 June 1958 to 19 July 1960.

Kitagawa Utamaro

Lived 1753 to 1806.

Kita Ikki

Lived 1883 to 1937.

Kiyomizudera

A famous temple in Kyōto.

Kiyoura Keigo

Lived 14 Feb. 1850 to 5 Nov. 1942.

Politician.

Prime Minister from 7 January 1924 to 11 June 1924.

Kizugawa, Battle of

Koan

A zen riddle used by some sects as a way of obtaining enlightenment. (There has to be a better way to word that.) A famous English example is “What is the sound of one hand clapping?”

Kōan (1278)

Nengō: 1278--1287.

The highlight of this nengō would have to be the mongol invasion of 1281. See Mongol Invasions on page XX.

Kōan (1361)

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1361--1362.

Kōan no Eki

The Japanese name for the war against the Mongol invaders in 1281. For more information, see Mongol Invasions on page XX.

Kōan-tennō

The 6th emperor of Japan. Reigned 392 to 291 B.C. As you might surmise from the dates, a mythological emperor.

Kobayakawa Family

A samurai family descended from Doi Sanehira (pg. X). They served the Mōri and grew in influence and power after Mōri Motonari's (pg. X) son Takakage was adopted into the family.

Kobayakawa Hideaki

Lived 1577 (1582?) to 18 Oct. 1602.

Born the 5th son of Kinoshita Iesada but was adopted by Hideyoshi. In 1592 he was adopted by Kobayakawa Takakage and became his heir.

In 1597 at age 20, Hideaki was given command of the invasion of Korea. The fighting in Korea did not go well and Ishida Mitsunari denounced Hideaki, calling him incompetent. In the resulting friction between Hideaki and Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu successfully acted as mediator to bring them together again.

After Hideyoshi's death, Hideaki was courted by both Ishida Mitsunari and Tokugawa Ieyasu. Although Hideaki originally thought to side with Ieyasu, he was later persuaded to support Hideyoshi's heir Hideyori. However, at Sekigahara, after hours of apparent indecision, Hideaki choose Tokugawa over Ishida and helped give the victory to Ieyasu.

See Also

Kinoshita Iesada (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Kobayakawa Takakage (pg. X), Korea, Invasion of (pg. X), Ishida Mitsunari (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyori (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X)

Kobayakawa Hidekane

Lived 1566 to 1601.

The 9th son of Mōri Motonari. Unclear exactly how he ended up a Kobayakawa.

Kobayakawa Takakage

Lived 1532 (1533?) to 12 June 1597.

The 3rd son of Mōri Motonari, Takakage was adopted by the Kobayakawa family.

Takakage fought in many battles and held his own against even the armies of Oda Nobunaga and Hideyoshi.

Fought in Hideyoshi's campaigns in Korea.

Takakage had no children so in 1592, Hideyoshi gave him his nephew Hideaki as adopted son.

See Also

Mōri Motonari (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideaki (pg. X)

Kobayashi Ichizo

Lived 1873 to 1957.

Kōbe City

Capital of Hyōgo Prefecture (pg XX).

Kobiyama Naoto

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Suzuki K.

Transport & Communications

Apr 11, 1945

May 19, 1945

Suzuki K.

Transport

May 19, 1945

Aug 17, 1945

Higashikuni

Transport

Aug 17, 1945

Oct 9, 1945

Table 49Cabinet Positions Held by Kobiyama Naoto

Kōbu Gattai

Kōbun-tennō

The 39th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 671 to 672.

Kōchi City

Capital city of Kōchi Prefecture.

Kōchi Prefecture

Area: 7,104 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kōchi

Population: 830,000 (1996)

Kōchō

Nengō: 1261--1263.

Kodama Gentarō

Lived 1852 to 1906.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

4th Itō

War

Dec 23, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

1st Katsura

War

Jun 2, 1901

Mar 27, 1902

1st Katsura

Home Affairs

Jul 15, 1903

Oct 12, 1903

1st Katsura

Education

Jul 17, 1903

Sep 22, 2003

Table 50Cabinet Positions Held by Kodama Gentarō

Kodama Hideo

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Terauchi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Oct 9, 1916

Sep 29, 1918

Okada

Colonization

Oct 25, 1934

Mar 9, 1936

Hayashi

Communications

Feb 10, 1937

Jun 4, 1937

Yonai

Home Affairs

Jan 16, 1940

Jul 22, 1940

Koiso

State

Jul 22, 1944

Feb 10, 1945

Koiso

Education

Jan 26, 1945

Apr 7, 1945

Table 51Cabinet Positions Held by Kodama Hideo

Kodama Yoshio

Born 1911.

Kodoha

See “Imperial Way Faction” on page XX.

Kōei

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1342--1344.

Kō Family

A samurai family that served the Ashikaga.

Kōfu City

Capital city of Yamanashi Prefecture (pg. X).

Kofukuji

Kofukuji, Battle of

Kofun

The Kofun period (ca. A.D. 250-ca. 600) takes its name, which means “old tomb” from the culture's rich funerary rituals and distinctive earthen mounds. The mounds contained large stone burial chambers, many of which were shaped like keyholes and some of which were surrounded by moats. By the late Kofun period, the distinctive burial chambers, originally used by the ruling elite, also were built for commoners.

During the Kofun period, a highly aristocratic society with militaristic rulers developed. Its horse-riding warriors wore armor, carried swords and other weapons, and used advanced military methods like those of Northeast Asia. Evidence of these advances is seen in funerary figures (called haniwa; literally, clay rings), found in thousands of kofun scattered throughout Japan. The most important of the haniwa were found in southern Honshu --- especially the Kinai region around Nara --- and northern Kyūshū. Haniwa grave offerings were made in numerous forms, such as horses, chickens, birds, fans, fish, houses, weapons, shields, sunshades, pillows, and male and female humans. Another funerary piece, the magatama, became one of the symbols of the power of the imperial house.

The Kofun period was a critical stage in Japan's evolution toward a more cohesive and recognized state. This society was most developed in the Kinai Region and the easternmost part of the Inland Sea (Seto Naikai), and its armies established a foothold on the southern tip of Korea. Japan's rulers of the time even petitioned the Chinese court for confirmation of royal titles; the Chinese, in turn, recognized Japanese military control over parts of the Korean peninsula.

The Yamato polity, which emerged by the late fifth century, was distinguished by powerful great clans or extended families, including their dependents. Each clan was headed by a patriarch who performed sacred rites to the clan's kami to ensure the long-term welfare of the clan. Clan members were the aristocracy, and the kingly line that controlled the Yamato court was at its pinnacle.

More exchange occurred between Japan and the continent of Asia late in the Kofun period. Buddhism was introduced from Korea, probably in A.D. 538, exposing Japan to a new body of religious doctrine. The Soga, a Japanese court family that rose to prominence with the accession of the Emperor Kimmei about A.D. 531, favored the adoption of Buddhism and of governmental and cultural models based on Chinese Confucianism. But some at the Yamato court --- such as the Nakatomi family, which was responsible for performing Shinto rituals at court, and the Mononobe, a military clan --- were set on maintaining their prerogatives and resisted the alien religious influence of Buddhism. The Soga introduced Chinese-modeled fiscal policies, established the first national treasury, and considered the Korean peninsula a trade route rather than an object of territorial expansion. Acrimony continued between the Soga and the Nakatomi and Mononobe clans for more than a century, during which the Soga temporarily emerged ascendant.

The Kofun period is seen as ending by around A.D. 600, when the use of elaborate kofun by the Yamato and other elite fell out of use because of prevailing new Buddhist beliefs, which put greater emphasis on the transience of human life. Commoners and the elite in outlying regions, however, continued to use kofun until the late seventh century, and simpler but distinctive tombs continued in use throughout the following period.

The Yamato state evolved still further during the Asuka period, which is named after the Asuka region, south of modern Nara, the site of numerous temporary imperial capitals established during the period. The Asuka period is known for its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, which had their origins in the late Kofun period.

Credits:

The article is originally based on materials from Library of Congress: Country Study

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Kofun

Kōgen

Nengō: 1256--1256.

Kōgen-tennō

The 8th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 214 to 158 B.C.

Kōgyoku-tennō

An empress. The 35th ruler of Japan.

Reigned 642 to 645.

Kōhei

Nengō: 1058--1064.

Kōhō

Nengō: 964--967.

Koiso Kuniaki

Lived 1 April 1880 to 3 Nov. 1950 (1955?).

Indicted as a class 'A' war criminal.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hiranuma

Colonization

Apr 7, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Yonai

Colonization

Jan 16, 1940

Jul 22, 1940

Koiso

Prime Minister

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Table 52Cabinet Positions Held by Koiso Kuniaki

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Koiso Kuniaki

Prime Minister

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Shimada Toshio

Agriculture & Commerce

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Miura Kunio

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jul 22, 1944

Jul 29, 1944

Tanaka Takeo

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jul 29, 1944

Feb 10, 1945

Hirose Hisatada

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Feb 10, 1945

Feb 21, 1945

Ishiwata Sōtarō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Feb 21, 1945

Apr 7, 1945

Miura Kunio

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Ninomiya Harushige

Education

Jul 22, 1944

Jan 26, 1945

Kodama Hideo

Education

Jan 26, 1945

Apr 7, 1945

Ishiwata Sōtarō

Finance

Jul 22, 1944

Feb 21, 1945

Tsushima Juichi

Finance

Feb 21, 1945

Apr 7, 1945

Shigemitsu Mamoru

Foreign Affairs

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Ōdachi Shigeo

Home Affairs

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Shigemitsu Mamoru

Greater East Asia

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Matsuzaka Hiromasa

Justice

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Fujihara Ginjirō

Munitions

Jul 22, 1944

Dec 19, 1944

Yoshida Shigeru

Munitions

Dec 19, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Yonai Mitsumasa

Navy

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Kodama Hideo

State

Jul 22, 1944

Feb 10, 1945

Ogata Taketora

State

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Machida Chūji

State

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Kobayashi Seizō

State

Dec 19, 1944

Mar 1, 1945

Hirose Hisatada

State

Feb 10, 1945

Feb 21, 1945

Ishiwata Sōtarō

State

Feb 21, 1945

Apr 7, 1945

Maeda Yonezō

Transport & Communications

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Sugiyama Gen

War

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Hirose Hisatada

Welfare

Jul 22, 1944

Feb 10, 1945

Aikawa Katsuroku

Welfare

Feb 10, 1945

Apr 7, 1945

Table 53Koiso Kuniaki's Cabinet

Koizumi Jun'ichirō

Prime Minister from 26 April 2001 to the present.

Kōji (1142)

Nengō: 1142--1143.

Kōji (1555)

Nengō: 1555--1557.

Kōka

Nengō: 1844--1847.

Kōkaku-tennō

The 119th emperor of Japan.

Lived 15 Aug 1771 to 19 Nov 1840.

Reigned 25 Nov 1779 (1780?) to 22 March 1817.

Kokawadera

Kōke

Literally “High Families,” kōke was the name given to a group of special ex-daimyō families during the Tokugawa period. These families held no lands but received a small stipend from the shōgunate. The system was instituted in 1608 (1603?) and there were eventually about 26 kōke families.

Several duties / offices in the bakufu government were reserved for members of these families.

Some of the kōke families were:

Family

Page

Family

Page

Hatakeyama


Imagawa


Kira


Oda


Ōsawa


Ōtomo


Takeda


Yokose


Yura




Table 54Kōke Families

Also see Omote-kōke, pg XX. But there is not currently anything there.

Kōken-tennō

An empress. The 46th ruler of Japan.

Lived 718 to 4 Aug. 770.

Reigned 2 July 749 to 1 Aug. 758.

Also reigned 9 Oct. 764 to 4 Aug. 770 as Shōtoku-tennō (pg. 320),the 48th ruler of Japan.

Kōkoku

Nengō: 1340--1345.

Kōkō-tennō

The 58th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 884 to 887.

Koku

A unit of volume, equal to roughly 180 liters. This was theoretically enough rice for one man for one year.

Land was classified by how many koku of rice it could produce. Thus daimyō could be ranked based on how many koku the lands they controlled could produce. This in turn allowed leaders like Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu to punish or reward their followers by moving them to fiefs that produced more or less rice.

To qualify as a daimyō, a man had to control lands producing at least 10,000 koku. Many daimyō had just that while a few (like the Tokugawa and the Maeda) controlled hundreds of thousands of koku.

Hideyoshi instituted a nationwide and very thorough program of land classification in the 1580s and 1590s. (check dates)

Kokumin Domei

Kokuryūkai

Kōmei-tennō

The 121th emperor of Japan.

Lived 14 June 1831 to 25 Dec 1866.

Reigned 13 Feb 1846 (1847?) to 25 Dec 1866.

Kō Moroaki

Son of Kō Moronao.

Kō Morofuyu

Son of Kō Moroshige.

Kō Moromochi

Son of Kō Moroshige.

Kō Moronao

Died in 1351.

Served Ashikaga Takauji (pg XX) for many years. Fought and won several battles, but lost to Ashikaga Tadayoshi (pg XX) in 1531 and was killed trying to get away.

Kō Moronatsu

Son of Kō Moronao.

Kō Moroshige

Father of Moronao, Moroshige, Moroyasu, and Moromochi.

Kō Moroyasu

Son of Kō Moroshige.

Assassinated in 1351.

Kō Moroyo

Son of Kō Moroyasu.

Died with his father in 1351.

Kōno Togama

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Matsukata

Agriculture & Commerce

Mar 14, 1892

Jul 14, 1892

1st Matsukata

Justice

Jun 23, 1892

Aug 8, 1892

1st Matsukata

Home Affairs

Jul 14, 1892

Aug 8, 1892

Table 55Cabinet Positions Held by Kōno Togama

Komura Jūtarō

Lived 1855 to 1911.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Sep 21, 1901

Jul 3, 1905

1st Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Jan 2, 1905

Jan 7, 1905

1st Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Oct 18, 1905

Nov 4, 1905

2nd Katsura

Foreign Affairs

Aug 27, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

Table 56Cabinet Positions Held by Komura Jūtarō

Kōnin-tennō

The 49th emperor of Japan. Reigned 770 to 781.

Kōnin

Nengō: 810--823.

Kono Binken

see Kono Togama on page XX.

Konoe Fumimaro

Lived 12 Oct 1891 to 16 Dec 1945.

Believing he was going to be arrested as a war criminal, Fumimaro committed suicide in 1945.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Konoe

Prime Minister

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

1st Konoe

Colonization

Sep 30, 1938

Oct 29, 1938

1st Konoe

Foreign Affairs

Sep 30, 1938

Oct 29, 1938

Hiranuma

Hanretsu

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

2nd Konoe

Agriculture & Forestry

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 24, 1940

2nd Konoe

Prime Minister

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

3rd Konoe

Justice

Jul 18, 1941

Jul 25, 1941

3rd Konoe

Prime Minister

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Higashikuni

State

Aug 17, 1945

Oct 9, 1945

Table 57Cabinet Positions Held by Konoe Fumimaro

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Konoe Fumimaro

Prime Minister

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Arima Yoriyasu

Agriculture & Forestry

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Kazami Akira

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Funada Naka

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Oct 25, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Taki Masao

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jun 4, 1937

Oct 25, 1937

Ugaki Kazushige

Colonization

Jun 25, 1938

Sep 30, 1938

Konoe Fumimaro

Colonization

Sep 30, 1938

Oct 29, 1938

Hatta Yoshiaki

Colonization

Oct 29, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Ikeda Shigeaki

Commerce & Industry

May 26, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Yoshino Shinji

Commerce & Industry

Jun 4, 1937

May 26, 1938

Nagai Ryūtarō

Communications

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Yasui Eiji

Education

Jun 4, 1937

Oct 22, 1937

Kido Kōichi

Education

Oct 22, 1937

May 26, 1938

Araki Sadao

Education

May 26, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Ikeda Shigeaki

Finance

May 26, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Kaya Okinori

Finance

Jun 4, 1937

May 26, 1938

Ugaki Kazushige

Foreign Affairs

May 26, 1938

Sep 30, 1938

Konoe Fumimaro

Foreign Affairs

Sep 30, 1938

Oct 29, 1938

Arita Hachirō

Foreign Affairs

Oct 29, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Hirota Kōki

Foreign Affairs

Jun 4, 1937

May 26, 1938

Baba Eiichi

Home Affairs

Jun 4, 1937

Dec 14, 1937

Suetsugu Nobumasa

Home Affairs

Dec 14, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Kido Kōichi

Welfare

Jan 11, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Nakajima Chikuhei

Railways

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Ōtani Sonyū

Colonization

Jun 4, 1937

Jun 25, 1938

Shiono Suehiko

Justice

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Yonai Mitsumasa

Navy

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

Sugiyama Gen

War

Jun 4, 1937

Jun 3, 1938

Itagaki Seishirō

War

Jun 3, 1938

Jan 5, 1939

Table 58Konoe Fumimaro's First Cabinet

Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Konoe Fumimaro

Prime Minister

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Ino Tetsuya

Agriculture & Forestry

Jun 11, 1941

Jul 18, 1941

Ishiguro Tadaatsu

Agriculture & Forestry

Jul 24, 1940

Jun 11, 1941

Konoe Fumimaro

Agriculture & Forestry

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 24, 1940

Tomita Kenji

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Murase Naokai

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Akita Kiyoshi

Colonization

Sep 28, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Matsuoka Yōsuke

Colonization

Jul 22, 1940

Sep 28, 1940

Kobayashi Ichizō

Commerce AND Industry

Jul 22, 1940

Apr 4, 1941

Toyoda Teijirō

Commerce & Industry

Apr 4, 1941

Jul 18, 1941

Murata Shōzō

Communications

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Hashida Kunihiko

Education

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Kawada Isao

Finance

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Matsuoka Yōsuke

Foreign Affairs

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Hoshino Naoki

Hanretsu

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Hiranuma Kiichirō

Home Affairs

Dec 21, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Yasui Eiji

Home Affairs

Jul 22, 1940

Dec 21, 1940

Kazami Akira

Justice

Jul 22, 1940

Dec 21, 1940

Yanagawa Heisuke

Justice

Dec 21, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Hiranuma Kiichirō

Minister of State

Dec 6, 1940

Dec 21, 1940

Hoshino Naoki

Minister of State

Dec 6, 1940

Apr 4, 1941

Ogura Masatsune

Minister of State

Apr 2, 1941

Jul 18, 1941

Suzuki Teiichi

Minister of State

Apr 4, 1941

Jul 18, 1941

Oikawa Koshirō

Navy

Sep 5, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Yoshida Zengo

Navy

Jul 22, 1940

Sep 5, 1940

Murata Shōzō

Railways

Jul 22, 1940

Sep 28, 1940

Ogawa Gōtarō

Railways

Sep 28, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Tōjō Hideki

War

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Yasui Eiji

Welfare

Jul 22, 1940

Sep 28, 1940

Kanemitsu Tsuneo

Welfare

Sep 28, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

Table 59Konoe Fumimaro's Second Cabinet

Third Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Konoe Fumimaro

Prime Minister

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Ino Tetsuya

Agriculture & Forestry

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Tomita Kenji

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Murase Naokai

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Toyoda Teijirō

Colonization

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Sakonji Masazō

Commerce & Industry

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Murata Shōzō

Communications

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Hashida Kunihiko

Education

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Ogura Masatsune

Finance

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Toyoda Teijirō

Foreign Affairs

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Tanabe Harumichi

Home Affairs

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Iwamura Michiyo

Justice

Jul 25, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Konoe Fumimaro

Justice

Jul 18, 1941

Jul 25, 1941

Hiranuma Kiichirō

Minister of State

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Suzuki Teiichi

Minister of State

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Yanagawa Heisuke

Minister of State

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Oikawa Koshirō

Navy

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Murata Shōzō

Railways

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Tōjō Hideki

War

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Koizumi Chikahiko

Welfare

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

Table 60Konoe Fumimaro's Third Cabinet

Konoe-tennō

The 76th emperor of Japan.

Lived 18 May 1139 to 23 July 1155

Reigned 7 Dec 1141 to 23 July 1155.

Kono Hironaka

Lived 1849 to 1923.

Kono Togama

aka Kono Binken.

Lived 1844 to 1895.

Kōō

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1389--1389.

Korea, Invasion of

which one?

Korea, Protectorate of

Kōrei-tennō

The 7th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 290 to 215 B.C.

Koreyasu

Koriyama, Seige of

Took place in 1540--1541.

Amako Haruhisa, with 3,000 men, attacked Koriyama Castle, which belonged to Mōri Motonari and was defended by 8,000 men. When Mōri sent an army to relieve the seige, Amako was forced to leave.

See Also

Amako Haruhisa (pg. X), Mōri Motonari (pg. X)

Kōryaku

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1379--1380.

Kōshō

Nengō: 1455--1456.

Kōshō-tennō

The 5th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 475 to 393 B.C.

Kotoamatsukami

In Japanese Shintoism, Kotoamatsukami is the collective name for the first powers which came into existence at the time of the creation of the universe. They were born in Takamagahara, the world of Heaven at the time of the creation, as Amenominakanushi (Sky), Takamimusubi (High Producer), Kamimusubi (Divine Producer), and a bit later Umashiashikabihikoji (Reed) and Amenotokotachi (Heaven).

These forces then became gods and goddesses, the tenzai shoshin (heavenly kami):

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Kotoamatsukami

Kōtoku-tennō

The 36th emperor of Japan.

Lived 596(?) to 10 Oct 654.

Reigned 14 June 645 to 10 Oct 654.

Kōtoku

Nengō: 1452--1454.

Also Kyōtoku. See that entry on page XX for more information.

Kōtoku Shūsui

Socialist and Anarchist.

Born in Kōchi Prefecture.

Lived 1871 to 1911.

See Also

Anarchism (pg 24), Red Flag Incident (pg 291),

Kōwa (1099)

Nengō: 1099--1103.

Kōwa (1381)

Nengō: 1381—1383.

Kowalewski, Jan

Lived ??

Sometimes “Kowalefsky, Jan”

Polish cryptological expert who came to Japan in September of 1924 (January 1923 according to [kahn_2004]) to help the Japanese army improve its codes and codebreaking skills. David Kahn describes Kowalewski as “a tallish, broad, handsome man, with a wonderful sense of humor and great intellectual intuition” ([kahn_2004], pg 86).

After teaching a three month seminar for selected officers, Kowalewski returned to Poland. Four of his Japanese students went with him to gain practical experience with the Polish military crytanalysts in Warsaw. These students returned to Japan a year later and others were sent to Warsaw to replace them. This exchange program of sorts supposedly lasted until 1938.

Unfortunately, there does not seem to be anything available in English to confirm the above. Most of the information is from [hiyama_1994], in which Hiyama Yoshiaki discusses Kowalewski's role in Japanese cryptological history. Hiyama provides no sources for his information. Other recent Japanese books on cryptology, such as [takagawa_2003], present almost no significant new information. Kahn does not mention Kowalewski's students visiting Poland at all and [kahn_2004] (pg 87) says that Kowalewski only taught four Japanese students.

Sources and Suggested Reading

[kahn_2004] pages 86-87, although some of the data does not match that in Japanese language sources like

See Also

Kōyō Gunkan

Kōzuke Province

A province in the area that is today Gunma Prefecture. Kōzuke bordered on Echigo, Iwashiro, Musashi, Shimotsuke, and Shinano Provinces.

See Also

Echigo Province (pg. X), Gumma Prefecture (pg. X), Iwashiro Province (pg. X), Musashi Province (pg. X), Shimotsuke Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X)

Kōzuki, Seige of

Kōzuki Castle sits at an elevation of 193 meters above sea level atop Mt. Kojin in the town of Kōzuki, in western Hyōgo Prefecture. During the Warring States Period, the castle sat at the intersection of three domains: Bizen, Harima and Mimasaka. It also stood watch over the only major trade route connecting lands to the west with those to the east. These two factors made Kōzuki Castle a very valuable piece of property for any who wished to gain dominance in the region. For the armies of Oda Nobunaga to push west to Hiroshima, Kōzuki Castle had to be captured. For Mori to push east into Oda's domain, he had to keep control of Kōzuki Castle. It was these two great powers of the day, Oda and Mori, which sent tens of thousands to fight and die for control of Kōzuki Castle.

The “Siege” of Kōzuki Castle is a misnomer, as the castle was the site of successive sieges and attacks over a two-year period – 1577 to 1578.

In the year 1577, the lord who controlled Kōzuki Castle for the Mori was named Akamatsu Masanori. That year saw the first massive invasion of Oda's armies into the region, under the leadership of Hideyoshi Hashiba (who would later take the name by which he is well known today – Hideyoshi Toyotomi).

Hideyoshi led an army numbering from thirty to forty thousand soldiers in an assault on the region. The vast majority of local lords, facing insurmountable odds, quickly swore allegiance to Oda and so major battles in the region were somewhat rare. Then Hideyoshi brought the armies of Oda to Kōzuki, where Akamatsu Masanori faced the challenge of Hideyoshi with a refusal to deny Mori as his master. And so the battle was joined.

After the death of thousands of his own, Akamatsu must have realized that defeat was imminent. In December of 1577, Akamatsu Masanori and his lieutenants committed ritual suicide within the walls of the castle, and Hideyoshi claimed victory in the name of Oda Nobunaga.22

After Hideyoshi's victory, the general placed the lord, Amago Katsuhisa, in the castle. It was not Amago, but Amago's top retainer, Yamanaka Shikanosuke, who gained fame in the siege of 1578. In that year, Mori sent an army of approximately thirty thousand into the region, to take back control of Kōzuki Castle, through which he would regain control of the region.

In October of that year, the Mori army surrounded Kōzuki Castle and began the attack. Amago Katsuhisa had, at most, one thousand men in his army to defend the castle.23

While Kōzuki Castle was under siege by the army of Mori, Hideyoshi himself returned with ten thousand soldiers to aid Amago in his defense of the castle. Hideyoshi sent a request to Oda Nobunaga for more soldiers to aid in the defense. Oda's reply condemned the defenders of the castle to their deaths.

At that time, Oda Nobunaga had problems further east – at Miki Castle (located in present day eastern Hyogo Prefecture). Hideyoshi was sent no troops. Rather, Hideyoshi and his army of ten thousand were recalled to aid in Oda's assault on Miki Castle. Hideyoshi and his men were literally within three miles of Kōzuki Castle when they were recalled.

The Amago forces repelled attack after attack, but their numbers were being reduced steadily with each assault and a Mori victory was just a matter of time.

Without his lord's permission, Yamanaka Shikanosuke met in secret with the leaders of the attacking Mori army and made them an offer. In exchange for the safety of Amago's retainers, Yamanaka and the defenders of Kōzuki Castle would surrender. His offer was accepted. Yamanaka Shikanosuke surrendered with what was left of Amago Katsuhisa's army. As promised, those who surrendered were kept alive and changed their allegiance to side with Mori.

Amago Katsuhisa committed ritual suicide within the castle walls. The bargain Yamanaka Shikanosuke had made with the Mori did not apply to himself.

Yamanaka Shikanosuke was taken prisoner and taken into the west. There he was executed in a dishonorable fashion – being cut down from behind. One theory suggests that Yamanaka struck a bargain with the Mori in an attempt to save his own life. Another suggests that he sacrificed himself for the sake of his men. The finer details of the secret meeting were never recorded and it is impossible to know Yamanaka's true motives.

by Carl F. Kelley

Contributed December 2002

See Also

Amago (Amako) Katsuhisa (pg. X), Toyotomi (Hashiba) Hideyoshi (pg. X), Kobayakawa Takakage (pg. X), Kikkawa Motoharu (pg. X)

(todo: index this entry)

Kukai

Lived 774 to 835.

Kuki Yoshitaka

Kumamoto National Party

Kumamoto City

The capital of Kumamoto Prefecture.

Kumamoto Prefecture

Area: 7,403 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kumamoto

Population: 1,870,000 (1996)

Kunohe Masazane

Lived

Kuroda Kiyotaka

Lived 16 Oct. 1840 to 23 Aug. 1900.

Prime Minister from 30 April 1888 to 24 December 1889.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Agriculture & Commerce

Sep 16, 1887

Apr 30, 1888

Kuroda

Prime Minister

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

2nd Itō

Hanretsu

Mar 17, 1895

Sep 18, 1896

Table 61Cabinet Positions Held by Kuroda Kiyotaka

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Kuroda Kiyotaka

Prime Minister

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Enomoto Takeaki

Agriculture & Commerce

Apr 30, 1888

Jul 25, 1889

Komaki Banchō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Inoue Kowashi

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Enomoto Takeaki

Communications

Apr 30, 1888

Mar 22, 1889

Gotō Shōjirō

Communications

Mar 22, 1889

Dec 24, 1889

Mori Arinori

Education

Apr 30, 1888

Feb 12, 1889

Ōyama Iwao

Education

Feb 16, 1889

Mar 22, 1889

Enomoto Takeaki

Education

Mar 22, 1889

Dec 24, 1889

Matsukata Masayoshi

Finance

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Foreign Affairs

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Itō Hirobumi

Hanretsu

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Yamagata Aritomo

Home Affairs

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 3, 1888

Matsukata Masayoshi

Home Affairs

Dec 3, 1888

Oct 3, 1889

Yamagata Aritomo

Home Affairs

Oct 3, 1889

Dec 24, 1889

Yamada Akiyoshi

Justice

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Ōyama Iwao

War

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Table 62Kuroda Kiyotaka's Cabinet

Kuroda Nagamasa

Lived 3 Dec. 1568 to 4 Aug. 1623.

Son of Kuroda Yoshitaka. Fought for Toyotomi Hideyoshi in Kyūshū and Korea. Sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara and again at the Seige of Ōsaka.

Was given Najima (520,000 koku) in Chikuzen after Sekigahara. Previously he had held Nakatsu (120,000 koku) in Buzen.

See Also

Buzen Province (pg. X), Chikuzen Province (pg. X), Korea, Invasion of (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X), Ōsaka, Seige of (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Kuroiwa Ruiko

Lived 1862 to 1920.

Kurosawa Akira

Japanese: 黒澤 明 also 黒沢 明

Lived 23 March 1910 to 6 Sept. 1998

A prominent Japanese director, producer, and screenplay writer.

Kurosawa is perhaps Japan's best-known filmmaker. He greatly influenced a whole generation of filmmakers worldwide. His first film (Sanshiro Sugata) was released in 1943; his last in 1999 (posthumously). Few filmmakers have had a career so long or so acclaimed.

Kurosawa was born March 23, 1910, in Omori, Tokyo. During his lifetime he saw Japan change from an undeveloped country with military ambitions to a peaceful economic power. Although he is most remembered for his films of the 1950s and 1960s, he continued to direct and write films until his death. He died September 6, 1998, in Setagaya, Tokyo.

Kurosawa's best-known films are set in Japan's feudal period (c. 13th century-17th century). Some of his plots are adaptations of William Shakespeare's works: Ran is based on King Lear and Throne of Blood is based on Macbeth.

George Lucas credits The Hidden Fortress (Japanese name Kakushi toride no san akunin), the tale of a princess, her general, and two buffoonish farmers, as an influence on his Star Wars films. Other films include Rashomon, The Seven Samurai (later remade as the western The Magnificent Seven), and Yōjimbō – the basis for the Clint Eastwood western A Fistful of Dollars. Yōjimbō was followed by a sequel, Sanjuro.

Kurosawa also directed film adaptations of Russian novels, including The Idiot by Dostoevsky and The Lower Depths. High and Low was based on a novel by American crime writer Ed McBain. Sixteen of his films, made between 1948 and 1964, feature many recurring actors - most notably Toshiro Mifune, whose relationship with Kurosawa began with 1948's Drunken Angel and ended with 1964's Red Beard.

After that film Kurosawa began working in colour and changed the style and scope of his films, which had formerly tended toward the epic. His subsequent film Dodesukaden, about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump, was not a success. Kurosawa then began work on a Hollywood project, Tora! Tora! Tora!; but 20th Century Fox replaced him with Kinji Fukasaku before it was completed.

After this Kurosawa attempted suicide, but survived. He went on to make several more films: Dersu Uzala, made in the USSR and set in Siberia in the early 20th century, won an Oscar; Kagemusha, the story of a man who is the double of a medieval Japanese lord and takes over his identity; and the aforementioned Ran, which was a phenomenal international success and is considered to be the crowning artistic achievement of Kurosawa's career. Kurosawa's final films included Akira Kurosawa's Dreams, Rhapsody in August and Madadayo.

Filmography

Title (En)

Title (Jp)

Year

Sanshiro Sugata


1943

One Most Beautiful, The


1944

Sanshiro Sugata Part II


1945

They Who Step on the Tiger's Tail


1945

No Regrets for Our Youth


1946

One Wonderful Sunday


1946

Drunken Angel


1948

Quiet Duel, The


1949

Stray Dog


1949

Rashomon


1950

Scandal


1950

Idiot, The


1951

Ikiru aka To Live


1952

Seven Samurai, The


1954

Record of a Living Being


1955

Lower Depths, The


1957

Throne of Blood, The


1957

Hidden Fortress, The


1958

Bad Sleep Well, The


1960

Yojimbo aka The Bodyguard

用心棒

1961

Sanjuro


1962

High and Low aka Heaven and Hell


1963

Red Beard

赤ひげ

1965

Dodesukaden


1970

Dersu Uzala


1975

Kagemusha


1980

Ran

1985

Dreams aka Akira Kurosawa's Dreams


1990

Rhapsody in August


1991

Madadayo aka Not Yet


1993

Table 63Filmography of Kurosawa Akira

See Also

Mifune Toshirō (pg 214)

Suggested Reading

Akira Kurosawa. Something Like An Autobiography. [kurosawa_1983]

Donald Richie and Joan Mellen. The Films of Akira Kurosawa, 1999

Modified from the Wikipedia Article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa

Kurusu Takeo

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Katayama

Finance

Jun 25, 1947

Mar 10, 1948

Ashida

State: Director of Economic Stabilization Board & Director of Price Board

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Ashida

State: Director of Central Economic Investigation Agency

Aug 1, 1948

Oct 15, 1948

Table 64Cabinet Positions Held by Kurusu Takeo

Kuruzuryugawa, Battle of

Kusunoki Masashige

Lived 1294 to 1336.

Kyōgoku Takatsugu

Lived 1560 to 1609.

Samurai. Christian.

Fought for Oda Nobunaga.

Received Ōtsu (60,000 koku) in Ōmi from Hideyoshi (what year?).

Side with the Tokugawa (when?) and was attacked at his castle by Tachibana Muneshige and Tsukushi Hirokado. (Details?)

Was given Obama (92,000 koku) in Wakasa in 1600.

Baptised in 1602.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Tachibana Muneshige (pg. X), Tokugawa Family (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Tsukushi Hirokado (pg. X), Wakasa Province (pg. X),

Kyōhō

Nengō: 1716--1735.

Kyokutei Bakin

See Bakin on page XX.

Kyōroku

Nengō: 1528--1531.

Kyōto City

The capital of Kyōto Prefecture.

Kyōtoku

Nengō: 1452--1454.

aka Kōtoku.

Kyōto Prefecture

Not technically a ken but rather a fu.

Area: 4,612 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kyōto

Population: 2,550,000 (1996)

Kyōwa

Nengō: 1801--1803.

Kyūan

Nengō: 1145--1150.

Kyūju

Nengō: 1154--1155.

Kyūshū

One of the four main islands of Japan. Of the four, Kyūūshū is the farthest South and West. It is thus relatively close to both China and Korea. Historically, Kyūshū has had more freedom from the central government than other areas of the main islands have had (with the notable exception of Hokkaidō).

See Also

Hokkaidō, Honshū, Shikoku

Kyūshū Campaign



Lansing, Robert – Lytton

Lansing, Robert

Li Hung-chang

Lobanov

Lytton

MacArthur, Douglas – Mutsu Province

MacArthur, Douglas

Lived 1880 to 1964.

Machida Chūji

Lived 1863 to 1946.

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Wakatsuki

Agriculture & Forestry

Jun 3, 1926

Apr 20, 1927

Hamaguchi

Agriculture & Forestry

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931

2nd Wakatsuki

Agriculture & Forestry

Apr 14, 1931

Dec 13, 1931

Okada

Commerce & Industry

Jul 8, 1934

Mar 9, 1936

Okada

Finance

Feb 27, 1936

Mar 9, 1936

Koiso

State

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Table 65Cabinet Positions Held by Machida Chūji

Maebara Issei

Lived 1834 to 1876.

Maebashi City

Capital of Gunma Prefecture (pg. X)

Maeda Family

A daimyō family from Owari who were descended from Sugawara no Michizane (pg. X).

Maeda Mitsumasa

Lived 1613 to 1645.

Son of Maeda Toshitsune (pg. X).

Maeda Toshiharu

Lived 1618 to 1660.

Son of Maeda Toshitsune (pg. X).

Maeda Toshiie

Lived 1539 (1538?) to 1599.

Fought for Oda Nobunaga (pg XXX).

Assisted Hideyoshi with the invasion of Korea, from Japan.

Was one of the five daimyō Hideyoshi appointed to rule while his son was a minor. Toshiie tried to curb the power of the Tokugawa, but died before Sekigahara.

Maeda Toshimasa

aka Maeda Takamasa

Son of Toshiie.

Was the daimyō of Noto (215,000 koku) but supported Hideyori at Sekigahara. For this he was forced to retire and his lands went to his brother Maeda Toshinaga.

Maeda Toshinaga

Lived 1562 to 1614.

Eldest son of Maeda Toshiie. Married one of Tokugawa Ieyasu's daughters.

Supported Ieyasu and after receiving his brother Toshimasa's lands (Noto, 215,000 koku) controlled a total of 1,250,000 koku, an amount exceeded only by the shōgunate. Toshinaga built and resided in Kanazawa Castle.

Had no children and adopted his brother Toshitsune as his heir.

Maeda Toshitsugi

Maeda Toshitsune

Lived 1593 to 1658.

Brother to Maeda Toshinaga. Adopted as his heir, becoming the wealthest daimyō outside of the Tokugawa. He controlled Etchu, Kaga, and Noto.

Maeda Yonezō

Lived

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Tanaka G.

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Apr 20, 1927

Jul 2, 1929

Inukai (dates?)

Commerce & Industry

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

Hirota

Railways

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937

Hiranuma

Railways

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939

Koiso

Transport & Communications

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945

Table 66Cabinet Positions Held by Maeda Yonezō

Maejima Hisoka

Lived 1835 to 1919.

Maibara City

Makino Nobuaki

Lived 1861 to 1949.

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Saionji

Education

Mar 27, 1906

Jul 14, 1908

2nd Saionji

Agriculture & Commerce

Aug 30, 1911

Dec 21, 1912

1st Yamamoto

Foreign Affairs

Feb 20, 1913

Apr 16, 1914

Table 67Cabinet Positions Held by Makino Nobuaki

Manchurian Incident

Manchurian Railway Company

Man'en

Nengō: 1860--1860.

Manji

Nengō: 1658--1660.

Manju

Nengō: 1024--1027.

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

Marune, Seige of

Took place in 1560.

(Tokugawa? Matsudaira Motoyasu?) took the castle from Sakuma Morishige, a vassal of Oda Nobunaga.

See Also

Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X),

Masuda Takashi

Lived 1848 to 1938.

Matsudaira Kagetada

Matsudaira Koremasu

Matsudaira Motoyasu

Matsudaira Sadanobu

Lived 27 Dec. 1758 (1759?) to 13 May 1829.

Matsuda Masahisa

Lived 1845 to 1914.

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Ōkuma

Finance

Jun 30, 1898

Nov 8, 1898

4th Itō

Education

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

1st Saionji

Justice

Jan 7, 1906

Mar 25, 1908

1st Saionji

Finance

Jan 14, 1908

Jul 14, 1908

2nd Saionji

Justice

Aug 30, 1911

Dec 21, 1912

1st Yamamoto

Justice

Feb 20, 1913

Nov 11, 1913

Table 68Cabinet Positions Held by Matsuda Masahisa

Matsue City

Capital of Shimane Prefecture (pg. X).

Matsukata Masayoshi

Lived 1835 to 1929.

Prime Minister from 6 May 1891 to 8 August 1892 and 18 September 1896 to 12 January 1898.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Finance

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

Kurota

Finance

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889

Kurota

Home Affairs

Dec 3, 1888

Oct 3, 1889

1st Yamagata

Finance

Dec 24, 1889

May 6, 1891

1st Matsukata

Finance

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

1st Matsukata

Prime Minister

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

1st Matsukata

Home Affairs

Jun 8, 1892

Jul 14, 1892

2nd Itō

Finance

Mar 17, 1895

Aug 27, 1895

2nd Matsukata

Finance

Sep 18, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

2nd Matsukata

Prime Minister

Sep 18, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

2nd Yamagata

Finance

Nov 8, 1898

Oct 19, 1900

Table 69Cabinet Positions Held by Matsukata Masayoshi

Matsukata Masayoshi's First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Matsukata Masayoshi

Prime Minister

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Kōno Togama

Agriculture & Commerce

Mar 14, 1892

Jul 14, 1892

Mutsu Munemitsu

Agriculture & Commerce

May 6, 1891

Mar 14, 1892

Sano Tsunetami

Agriculture & Commerce

Jul 14, 1892

Aug 8, 1892

Hiranuma Narinobu

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Ozaki Saburō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Gotō Shōjirō

Communications

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Ōki Takatō

Education

Jun 1, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Ōki Takatō

Education

Jun 1, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Education

May 6, 1891

Jun 1, 1891

Matsukata Masayoshi

Finance

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Matsukata Masayoshi

Finance

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Aoki Shūzō

Foreign Affairs

May 6, 1891

May 29, 1891

Enomoto Takeaki

Foreign Affairs

May 29, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Kōno Togama

Home Affairs

Jul 14, 1892

Aug 8, 1892

Matsukata Masayoshi

Home Affairs

Jun 8, 1892

Jul 14, 1892

Saigō Tsugumichi

Home Affairs

May 6, 1891

Jun 1, 1891

Shinagawa Yajirō

Home Affairs

Jun 1, 1891

Mar 11, 1892

Soejima Taneomi

Home Affairs

Mar 11, 1892

Jun 8, 1892

Kōno Togama

Justice

Jun 23, 1892

Aug 8, 1892

Tanaka Fujimaro

Justice

Jun 1, 1891

Jun 23, 1892

Yamada Akiyoshi

Justice

May 6, 1891

Jun 1, 1891

Kabayama Sukenori

Navy

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Ōyama Iwao

War

May 6, 1891

May 17, 1891

Takashima Tomonosuke

War

May 17, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

Table 70Matsukata Masayoshi's First Cabinet

Matsukata Masayoshi's Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Matsukata Masayoshi

Prime Minister

Sep 18, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Enomoto Takeaki

Agriculture & Commerce

Sep 18, 1896

Mar 29, 1897

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Agriculture & Commerce

Mar 29, 1897

Nov 6, 1897

Yamada Nobumichi

Agriculture & Commerce

Nov 8, 1897

Jan 12, 1898

Hiranuma Narinobu

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Oct 8, 1897

Jan 12, 1898

Takahashi Kenzō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Sep 18, 1896

Oct 8, 1897

Kōmuchi Tomotsune

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Sep 18, 1896

Oct 28, 1897

Ume Kenjirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Oct 28, 1897

Jan 12, 1898

Takashima Tomonosuke

Colonization

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 2, 1897

Nomura Yasushi

Communications

Sep 26, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Shirane Sen'ichi

Communications

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 26, 1896

Hachisuka Mochiaki

Education

Sep 28, 1896

Nov 6, 1897

Hamao Arata

Education

Nov 6, 1897

Jan 12, 1898

Saionji Kinmochi

Education

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 28, 1896

Matsukata Masayoshi

Finance

Sep 18, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Nishi Tokujirō

Foreign Affairs

Nov 6, 1897

Jan 12, 1898

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Foreign Affairs

Sep 22, 1896

Nov 6, 1897

Saionji Kinmochi

Foreign Affairs

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 22, 1896

Itagaki Taisuke

Home Affairs

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 20, 1896

Kabayama Sukenori

Home Affairs

Sep 20, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Kiyoura Keigo

Justice

Sep 26, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Yoshikawa Akimasa

Justice

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 26, 1896

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

Sep 18, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Ōyama Iwao

War

Sep 18, 1896

Sep 20, 1895

Takashima Tomonosuke

War

Sep 20, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

Table 71Matsukata Masayoshi's Second Cabinet

Matsukura Castle

Castle in Etchū, built by Fumon Toshikiyo.

Matsumoto Jōji

Lived

Cabinet Positions Held by Matsumoto Jōji

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Yamamoto

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Sep 2, 1923

Jan 7, 1924

Saitō

Commerce & Industry

Feb 9, 1934

Jul 8, 1934

Shidehara

State

Oct 9, 1945

May 22, 1946

Table 72Cabinet Positions Held by Matsumoto Jōji

Matsumura Kenzō

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Higashikuni

Education

Aug 17, 1945

Aug 18, 1945

Higashikuni

Welfare

Aug 17, 1945

Oct 9, 1945

Shidehara

Agriculture & Forestry

Oct 9, 1945

Jan 13, 1946

Table 73Cabinet Positions Held by Matsumura Kenzō

Matsunaga Hisahide

Lived 1510 to 1577

Samurai.

Spent much time fighting in shōgunal succession disputes. Briefly controlled a baby shōgun.

Became a vassal of Oda Nobunaga in 1568. Revolted in 1572 but soon turned on his co-traitors. Tried to revolt again in 1577 but Oda forces destroyed his castle (which was where?) and Hisahide committed suicide.

(This reminds me --- need to add an entry on gekokujō.)

See Also

gekokujō (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X),

Matsuo Bashō

Lived 1844 to 1694.

Matsuoka Komakichi

Lived 1888 to 1958.

Matsuoka Yosuke

Lived 1880 to 1946.

Matsusaka-han

Matsushita Konosuke

Lived 1894 to 1989.

Matsuyama City

Capital of Ehime Prefecture (pg. XX).

Matsuyama-han

Matsuzaka-han

May Fifteen Incident

May Fourth Movement

Meiji Constitution

See Constitution of 1889, on page 60.

Meiji

Nengō: 1868-1912.

The Meiji Era (1868--1912) marks the reign of the Emperor Meiji. During this time, Japan was modernized and rose to world power status.

The Meiji Restoration (1867--1868) ended the over 250 years of rule by the Tokugawa shōguns. It also is a convenient break between old feudal-like and “modern” Japan. In 1868, 14-year-old Mutsuhito succeded his father, the Emperor Komei, taking the title Meiji, meaning “enlightened rule.”

Considering that the economic structure and production of the country was roughly equivalent to Elizabethan era England, to become a world power in such a short amount of time is widely regarded as remarkable progress. This process was closely monitored and heavily subsidized by the Meiji government, creating companies whose power and influence would grow such that would later be known as “zaibatsu.”

Following her defeat of China in Korea in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), Japan's breakthrough as an international power came with her victory against Russia in Korea and Manchuria (north-eastern China) in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904--1905. Allied with Britain since 1902, Japan joined the Allies in World War I, seizing German-held territory in China and the Pacific in the process, but otherwise remained largely out of the conflict. After the war, a weakened Europe left a greater share in international markets to the U.S. and Japan, which emerged greatly strengthened. Japanese competition made great inroads into hitherto European-dominated markets in Asia, not only in China, but even in European colonies like India and Indonesia.

The Emperor Meiji died in 1912 and the Taisho emperor took the throne and thus began the Taisho Era.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Meiji_Era

Meiji Restoration

Japanese: 明治維新

The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin or Renewal, describes a chain of events that led to a change in Japan's political and social structure; it occurred from 1866 to 1869, a period of 4 years that falls in both the late Edo (often called Late Tokugawa shōgunate) and the beginning of the Meiji Era.

The formation in 1866 of the Satcho Alliance between Saigo Takamori, of Satsuma, and Kido Takayoshi, of Choshu, marks the beginning of the Meiji restoration. These two leaders supported the emperor and were brought together by Ryoma Sakamoto for the purpose of challenging the ruling Tokugawa shōgunate (bakufu) and restoring the emperor to power.

The Tokugawa bakufu came to an official end on November 9, 1867, when the 15th Tokugawa shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu "put his prerogotives at the emperor's disposal" (Beasley, 52) and then resigned his position 10 days later. This was effectively the "restoration" (Taisei Houkan) of imperial rule, although Yoshinobu retained considerable power.

Shortly thereafter in January 1868, the Boshin War (War of the Year of the Dragon) started with the Battle of Toba Fushimi in which an army led by forces from Choshu and Satsuma defeated the ex-shōgun's army and forced the Emperor to strip Yoshinobu of all power. The war ended in early 1869 with the siege of Hakodate, Hokkaido. The defeat of the armies of the former shōgun (led by Hijikata Toshizo) marked the end of the Meiji Restoration; all defiance to the emperor and his rule ended.

The leaders of the Meiji Restoration, as this revolution came to be known, claimed that their actions restored the emperor's powers. This is not in fact true. Power simply moved from the Tokugawa shōgun to a new oligarchy. These oligarchs were mostly from the Satsuma province (Okubo Toshimichi and Saigo Takamori), and the Choshu province (Ito Hirobumi, Yamagata Aritomo, and Kido Koin.)

Leaders

These were leading figures in the Meiji Restoration when the Japanese emperors retook power from the Tokugawa shoguns. Some of them went on to become Prime Ministers of Japan.

Name

Birth

Death

Han (Domain)

Okubo Toshimichi

1830

1878


Kido Takayoshi

1833

1877


Saigo Takamori

1827

1877


Iwakura Tomomi

1825

1883


Ito Hirobumi

1841

1909


Kuroda Kiyotaka

1840

1900


Matsukata Masayoshi

1835

1924


Oyama Iwao

1842

1916


Saigo Tsugumichi

1843

1902


Yamagata Aritomo

1838

1922


Inoue Kaoru

1835

1915


Saionji Kinmochi

1849

1940


Table 74 Leaders of the Meiji Restoration

References and Suggested Reading

Beasley, W. G. The Rise of Modern Japan: Political, Economic and Social Change Since 1850. St. Martin's Press, New York 1995.

Beasley, The Meiji Restoration

The names of the Meiji Oligarchists were taken from: Murphey, Rhoades. East Asia: A New History. Addison Wesley Longman, New York 1997.

Ernest Satow

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiji_Restoration

Meiji-tennō

The 122nd emperor of Japan.

Lived 22 Sept. 1852 to 29 July 1912.

Reigned 9 Jan. 1867 to 29 (30?) July 1912. His coronation was in 1868.

Meiō

Nengō: 1492--1500.

Meireki

Nengō: 1655--1657.

Meishō-tennō

An empress, not an emperor. The 109th ruler of Japan. The last woman to sit on the throne.

Lived from 19 Nov 1623 to 10 Nov 1696.

Reigned from 8 Nov 1629 (1630?) to 3 Oct 1643.

Second daughter of Gomizunō-tennō.

Meitoku (Northern Dynasty)

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1390-1393.

Meitoku (Southern Dynasty)

Nengō of the Southern Dynasty: 1393-1393.

Meiwa

Nengō: 1764--1771.

Mie Prefecture

Area: 5,774 km2 (1995)

Capital: Tsu

Population: 1,840,000 (1996)

Mifune Toshirō

Japanese: 三船 敏郎

Lived from 1 April 1920 to 24 December 1997

A charismatic actor who appeared in almost 170 films. He was best known for his roles in Kurosawa Akira's masterpieces in the 1950s and 1960s (including The Seven Samurai, Yōjimbō, and Red Beard). He often portrayed a samurai or ronin, sometimes rough and gruff, and usually a reluctant hero. Well known outside of Japan for his role in The Seven Samurai and for his portrayal of Miyamoto Musashi in other films.

Filmography

Title (En)

Title (Jp)

Role

Year

Director

Bad Sleep Well, The



1960

Kurosawa

Drunken Angel



1948

Kurosawa

Grand Prix





Hidden Fortress, The



1958

Kurosawa

High and Low



1963

Kurosawa

Rashomon



1950

Kurosawa

Record of a Living Being (aka I Live in Fear)





Red Beard

赤ひげ


1965

Kurosawa

Samurai I





Samurai II





Samurai III





Sanjuro



1962

Kurosawa

The Seven Samurai



1954

Kurosawa

Shōgun (television)





Stray Dog



1949

Kurosawa

Throne of Blood



1957

Kurosawa

Yōjimbō

用心棒


1961

Kurosawa

1941


submarine commander


Spielberg

Table 75Filmography of Mifune Toshirō

See Also

Kurosawa Akira pg (199), Miyamoto Musashi (pg 225)

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiro_Mifune

Miike Coal Mine

Mikagehama, Battle of

1351.

A battle between Ashikaga Takauji and Kō Morona on one side and Ishidō Yorifusa on the other. Ishidō won.

Mikatagahara, Battle of

Fought in 1572.

Takeda Shingen was headed for Ieyasu's castle at Hamamatsu. Among his men were Yamagata Masakage and Baba Nobuharu. Ieyasu took about 11,000 men (3,000 of them Oda Nobunaga's troops) out to meet Shingen in battle. Shingen had as many as 30,000 men.

Shingen defeated Ieyasu but bad weather and Tokugawa cunning prevented him from following up on the victory. The cunning part is this: Ieyasu managed to retreat into his castle, but ordered the gates left open and bonfires lit, to help his scattered troops to find their way back.

Sakai Tadatsugu, in the castle, even went so far as to beat on a drum. In addition to helping morale, these efforts convinced Masakage and Nobuharu --- pursuing the retreating Tokugawa forces --- that there must be some trick. Instead of attacking the wide open castle, they camped outside for the night. The following day, the Takeda army left.

See Also

Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Yamagata Masakage (pg. X), Baba Nobuharu (pg. X), Sakai Tadatsugu (pg. X)

Mikawa Province

A province in the area that is today Aichi Prefecture. Mikawa bordered on Owari, Mino, Shinano, and Tōtōmi Provinces.

See Also

Aichi Prefecture (pg. X), Owari Province (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X), Tōtōmi Province (pg. X),

Miki Kiyoshi

Lived 1897 to 1945.

Miki, Seige of

Lasted from 1578--1580.

Hideyoshi took Miki Castle from Bessho Nagaharu, a retainer of the Mōri.

See Also

Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Mōri Family (pg. X), Bessho Nagaharu (pg. X),

Miki Takeo

Lived 1907 to 1988.

Politician. Elected to the Diet in 1937 and remained there until at least 1984. Was prime minister from 9 December 1974 to 24 December 1976. Miki was popular with the public for his attempts at reform and unpopular with big business and his own party for the same reason. He held many other posts during his career in addition to being prime minister.

Mimasaka Province

A province in the area that is today Okayama Prefecture. Mimasaka bordered on Bitchū, Bizen, Harima, Hōki, and Inaba Provinces. Mimasaka was landlocked.

See Also

Bitchū Province (pg. X), Bizen Province (pg. X), Harima Province (pg. X), Hōki Province (pg. X), Inaba Province (pg. X), Okayama Prefecture (pg. X),

Mimasetoge, Battle of

Took place in 1569.

Hōjō Ujiteru and Hōjō Ujikuni attacked Takeda Shingen. Although outnumbered 2 to 1, Shingen and his army managed to escape.

See Also

Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Hōjō Ujiteru (pg. X), Hōjō Ujikuni (pg. X)

Minami Hiroshi

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Saionji

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jan 04 1908

14 July 1908

2nd Saionji

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Saitō

Communications

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Table 76Cabinet Positions Held by Minami Hiroshi

Minamoto Akira

Lived 814 to 843.

Minamoto Ariko

Lived 1171 to 1257.

Minamoto Chikako

Daughter of Morochika (who?). Wife to Emperors Kameyama and Godaigo.

Minamoto Families

An important job for any hereditary ruler is to provide an heir. In the past it was not uncommon for many children to die before reaching adulthood and thus it was not safe for a monarch to have only a few children. More sons offered a better chance of at least one making it safely to adulthood and eventually to become ruler.

But what to do with all the other royal children who do not die? At best they are a drain on the treasury and at worst (the usual case) they are involved in all sorts of court plots and conspiracies. The Emperor Saga (reigned 809 to 823) started the tradition of giving the name `Minamoto' to the sons and sometimes brothers of emperors and then casting them free, as new families, separate from the imperial court.

As time went on there were so many Minamotos that they started being distinguished by which emperor they were descended from. Thus, the Daigo-Minamoto are descendents of the Emperor Daigo and the Uda-Minamoto are descendents of the Emperor Uda.

Minamoto Family (Daigo Branch)

A branch of the Minamoto family decended from Minamoto Takaaki, a son of Emperor Daigo.

Toshikata, Takakuni, Toshiaki, and Hiromasa are among the members of this line of the Minamoto.

See Also

Daigo-tennō (pg. X), Minamoto Hiromasa (pg. X), Minamoto Takaaki (pg. X), Minamoto Takakuni (pg. X), Minamoto Toshiaki (pg. X), Minamoto Toshikata (pg. X),

Minamoto Family (Murakami Branch)

A branch of the Minamoto family descended from Tamehira and Tomohira, sons of the Emperor Murakami.

Minamoto Family (Saga Branch)

A branch of the Minamoto family decended from Minamoto Makoto, a son of the Emperor Saga.

Tsune, Akira, Sadamu, Tōru, Hikaru, and Shitagau are among the members of this line of the Minamoto.

See Also

Minamoto Akira (pg. X), Minamoto Hikaru (pg. X), Minamoto Makoto (pg. X), Minamoto Sadamu (pg. X), Minamoto Shitagau (pg. X), Minamoto Tōru (pg. X), Minamoto Tsune (pg. X), Saga-tennō (pg. X),

Minamoto Family (Seiwa Branch)

A branch of the Minamoto family descended from Sadatoshi, Sadayasu, and Sadazumi, sons of the Emperor Seiwa.

Minamoto Family (Uda Branch)

A branch of the Minamoto family descended from Tokiyo and Atsuzane, sons of the Emperor Uda.

Minamoto Hideakira

Died 940.

Minamoto Hikaru

Lived 845 to 913.

Minamoto Hiromasa

Lived 918 to 980.

Minamoto Ichiman

Lived 1200 to 1203.

Minamoto Kugyo

Minamoto Makoto

Lived 810 to 869.

Minamoto Masanobu

Lived 920 to 993.

Minamoto Masazane

Lived 1059 to 1127.

Minamoto Michichika

Lived 1149 to 1202.

Minamoto Mitsunaka

Lived 912 to 997.

Minamoto Morofusa

Lived 1003 to 1077.

Minamoto Moroyori

Lived 1070 to 1139.

Minamoto Nakatsuna

Died 1180.

Minamoto Noriyori

Lived 1156 to 1193.

Minamoto Sadamu

Lived 815 to 863.

Minamoto Sanetomo

Lived 1192 to 1219.

The 3rd Kamakura shōgun.

In office: 1203 to 1219.

Minamoto Senju-maru

Lived 1201 to 1214.

Minamoto Shitagau

Lived 911 to 983.

Minamoto Takaaki

Lived 914 to 982.

Minamoto Takakuni

Lived 1004 to 1077.

Minamoto Tametomo

Lived 1139 to 1170.

Minamoto Tameyoshi

Lived 1096 to 1156.

Minamoto Tomonaga

Lived 1144 to 1160.

Minamoto Tōru

Lived 822 to 895.

Minamoto Toshiaki

Lived 1044 to 1114.

Minamoto Toshifusa

Lived 1035 to 1131.

Minamoto Toshikata

Lived 959 to 1027.

Minamoto Tsunemoto

Lived 894 to 961.

Minamoto Tsune

Lived 812 to 854.

Minamoto Yoriie

Lived 1182 to 1204.

The 2nd Kamakura shōgun.

In office: 1202 to 1203.

Minamoto Yoriie was the second shōgun of the Kamakura shōgunate of Japan. Eldest son of the founder of the Kamakura shōgunate Minamoto Yoritomo, his mother was Hōjō Masako.

After his father's death in 1199, Yoriie became head of the Minamoto clan and was appointed Seii Taishogun (shōgun) in 1202. By this time however, real power had already fallen into the hands of his grandfather Hōjō Tokimasa. Yoriie in turn plotted to subjugate the Hōjō clan but failed and was put under house arrest and eventually assassinated in 1204.

Yoriie was succeeded by his younger brother, Minamoto Sanetomo.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoriie

Minamoto Yorimasa

Lived 1106 to 1180.

Minamoto Yorimitsu

Lived 944 to 1021.

Minamoto Yorinobu

Lived 968 to 1048.

Minamoto Yoritomo

Lived 1147 to 1199.

The 1st Kamakura shōgun.

In office: 1192 to 1199.

Minamoto Yoriyoshi

Lived 995 to 1082.

Minamoto Yoshichika

Died 1117.

Minamoto Yoshihira

Lived 1140 to 1160.

Minamoto Yoshiie

Lived 1041 to 1108.

Minamoto Yoshikata

Died 1155.

Minamoto Yoshikuni

Died 1155.

Minamoto Yoshimitsu

Lived 1056 to 1127.

Minamoto Yoshinaka

Lived 1154 to 1184.

Minamoto Yoshitomo

Lived 1123 to 1160.

Minamoto Yoshitsuna

Died 1134.

Minamoto Yoshitsune

Japanese: 源 義経

Lived 1159 to 1189.

Often Minamoto no Yoshitsune.

Yoshitsune was a late Heian and early Kamakura period general of the Minamoto clan of Japan. Yoshitsune was the ninth son of Minamoto Yoshitomo and his older brother Minamoto Yoritomo founded the Kamakura shogunate.

Yoshitsune was born slightly before the Heiji Rebellion of 1159 in which his father and oldest two brothers were killed. His life was spared and put under the care of Kurama Temple in the capital of Kyoto while Yoritomo was banished to Izu province. Eventually Yoshitsune was put under the protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira, head of the powerful regional Fujiwara clan in Hiraizumi, Mutsu province.

In 1180, Yoshitsune heard that Yoshitomo, now head of the Minamoto clan, had raised an army at the request of Prince Mochihito to fight against the Taira clan which had usurped the power of the emperor. Yoshitsune shortly thereafter joined Yoshitomo along with Minamoto no Noriyori, all brothers that had never before met, in the last of three conflicts between the rival Minamoto and Taira samurai clans in the Gempei War.

Yoshitsune defeated and killed his rival cousin Minamoto Yoshinaka at Awazu in Omi province in the first month of 1184 and in the next month defeated the Taira at the Battle of Ichi no Tani in present day Kobe. In 1185, Yoshitsune defeated the Taira again at the Battle of Yashima in Shikoku and destroyed them at the Battle of Dan no Ura in present day Yamaguchi prefecture.

After the Gempei War, Yoshitsune joined the cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa against his brother Yoritomo. Fleeing to the temporary protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira in Mutsu again, Yoshitomo was betrayed and killed by Hidehira's son Fujiwara no Yasuhira.

Because of Yoshitsune's tragic life and early death, he is one of the greatest folk heroes of Japan, becoming the subject of and influencing many works of Japanese literature and Japanese drama, while the details of his life became legendary.

See Also

Suggested Reading

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamoto_no_Yoshitsune

Minamoto Yukiie

Died 1186.

Mining

Minobe Tatsukichi

Lived 1873 to 1948.

Minomura Rizaemon

Lived 1821 to 1877.

Mino Province

A province in the area that is today Gifu Prefecture. Mino bordered on Echizen, Hida, Ise, Mikawa, Ōmi, Owari, and Shinano Provinces.

See Also

Echizen Province (pg. X), Gifu Prefecture (pg. X), Hida Province (pg. X), Ise Province (pg. X), Mikawa Province (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Owari Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X),

Minseito

Minshū Shakaitō

Mishima Michitsune

Lived 1835 to 1888.

Mishima Yukio

Lived 14 Jan. 1925 to 25 Nov. 1970.

Novelist. Graduate of Tokyo University.

Works include (to be added).

Misora Hibari

aka Kato Kazue

Lived 1937 to 1989.

Mito City

Capital of Ibaraki Prefecture (pg. X).

Mitsuchi Chūzō

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Takahashi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Tanaka G.

Education

20 Apr 1927

02 June 1927

Tanaka G.

Finance

02 June 1927

02 July 1929

Inukai (Check dates)

Communications

13 Dec 1931

26 May 1932

Saitō

Railways

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Shidehara

Home Affairs

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Shidehara

Transport

13 Jan 1946

26 Jan 1946

Table 77Cabinet Positions Held by Mitsuchi Chūzō

Mitsui

Mitsukuri Rinsho

Lived 1846 to 1897.

Miura Goro

Lived 1847 to 1926.

Miyagi Prefecture

Area: 7,285 km2 (1995)

Capital: Sendai

Population: 2,310,000 (1996)

Miyake Setsurei

Lived 1860 to 1945.

Miyamoto Musashi

Japanese: 宮本 武蔵

aka Niten (Japanese: 二天 ) (used when signing paintings and drawings)

Lived 1584 to 19 May (13 June?) 1645.

Miyamoto Musashi was a famous Japanese swordsman. Also an accomplished artist.

Much Miyamoto Musashi's life is shrouded in mystery and legends. His place and date of birth are in doubt. Apparently he was born into a samurai family in the village of Miyamoto in the province of Mimasaka. His full name was Shinmen Musashi no Kami Fujiwara no Genshin. This means, "Member of Shinmen family, the family name Musashi, clan Fujiwara, adulthood name Genshin". His childhood name is either Takezō or Bennosuke. The name Musashi is taken from Musashibō Benkei, the warrior monk who served Minamoto no Yoshitsune and known as the great warrior who used 9 weapons.

It is said that Musashi contracted eczema in his infancy, which influenced his appearance. Another story claims that he never took a bath, because he did not want to be surprised unarmed.

According to the introduction of his The Book of Five Rings, where he states some autobiographical details, he had his first successful duel by the age of thirteen. His first opponent was an accomplished samurai, Arima Kihei from Kashima, who fought using Shintō-ryū style.

According to tradition he fought in the Battle of Sekigahara in the troops of the pro-Toyotomi forces as a mercenary. He does not mention this in The Book of Five Rings. Though he had some success in this battle, the Toyotomi side lost and he had barely survived escaping this battle.

After the war was over he left for Edo. According to his adopted son Iori, in 1604 Musashi fought a victorious duel against master swordsman Yoshioka Seijuro using only a bokken, a wooden sword. Reputedly he had a grudge against Yoshioka family for how they had treated his father. This duel was not supposed to take loser's life and thus Musashi left without taking Yoshioka's life. It is said that Seijuro never held a sword afterward as his pride had been shattered. After he had defeated the father, he killed both boys in duels – though the latter one was more of an ambush. Yoshioka family records however claim that Musashi had been hit in the head by Seijuro and lost. In the subsequent battle, Musashi fled the scene. Most duel records from these times praised their wins but rarely mentioned their losses so it is impossible to know what exactly happened. Yet the fact that they had written records at all is a indication that they were survivors of duels.

From 1605 to 1612 he traveled extensively all over Japan in Musha-Shugyo, a warrior pilgrimage during which he honed his skills with duels. He was said to have used bokken in actual duels. Most of duels from these times did not try to take opponent's life and unless both agreed, wooden swords were used. He is also said to have fought over 60 duels and was never defeated. Japanese historians seem to believe that he could not have won all of them alone, without some assistance from his students.

On April 14, 1612 he had his most famous duel, against Sasaki Ganryū who was using a nodachi, a long two-handed sword. Musashi came late and unkempt – possibly to unnerve his opponent – and killed him with a bokken that he had made from an oar to be longer than the nodachi. Kojiro cut the ??? off of Musashi's head and also slashed his hakama before being killed. This showed both his skill and one reason Musashi choose to make a sword longer than Kojiro's. After this fight, did not kill anyone in a duel, preferring instead to fight armed opponents using only wooden swords or sticks as his own weapons. Unable to attack or find an opening, the opponents would often admit defeat.

In 1614–1615, Musashi reputedly joined the troops of Tokugawa Ieyasu when they besieged the Toyotomi family in Ōsaka Castle. 1615 he entered the service of Ogasawara Tadanao in Harima province as a construction supervisor. During his service he adopted a boy called Iori and originated the Enmyo Ryu school of kenjutsu.

In 1627 he began to travel again. In 1634 he settled in Kokura with his stepson Iori. Later they apparently entered the service of daimyō Ogasawara Tadazane when he fought in the Shimabara Rebellion. Iori served with excellence in putting down this rebellion and would gradually rise to the rank of karo, a position equal to a minister. Musashi, however was injured by a thrown rock while scouting in the front line.

Six years later Musashi moved to service of Hosokawa Tadatoshi, daimyō of Kumamoto Castle to train and paint. In 1643 he retired to a cave named Reigandou as a hermit to write The Book of Five Rings. He finished it couple of weeks before his death around June 13, 1645.

After his death, various legends began to appear. Most talk about his feats in kenjutsu and other martial arts. Others tell that he killed giant lizards in Echizen. He gained the stature of Kensei, a "sword saint" and various tales connect him with other contemporary martial artists.

Musashi perfected the two-sword kenjutsu technique he called niten'ichi (二天一, "two heavens as one") or nitouichi (二刀一, "two swords as one"). In this technique, the swordsman uses both katana and wakizashi at the same time. Reputedly, the two-handed movements of temple drummers inspired him. He was probably able to do this due to his unusually large size – most of his contemporaries held their katana with both hands.

Musashi was a loner. He had no formal training in any of the formal kenjutsu schools – aside from dueling with their representatives. He also had a rather no-nonsense approach to fighting with no additional frills or aesthetic considerations. This was probably due to his real-life combat experience. Musashi believed that victory was the aim of battle, not dieing for one's lord or anything romantic like that. This meant, among other things, not preferring one sword style or even weapon over any other. The weapon that gives the best chance of winning is the best weapon to use for that fight – Musashi's use of an oversized sword carved from an oar in his duel with Sasaki Kojiro is an example of this.

Especially later in his life Musashi also followed the more artistic side of bushido. He made various Zen brush paintings and calligraphy and sculpted wood and metal. Even in the Book of Five Rings he emphasizes that samurai should understand other professions as well.

Excerpt from The Book of Five Rings

This is the way for men who wish to learn my strategy:

  1. Do not think dishonestly.

  2. The Way is in training.

  3. Become acquainted with every art.

  4. Know the Ways of all professions.

  5. Distinguish between gain and loss in worldly matters.

  6. Develop intuitive judgment and understanding for everything.

  7. Perceive those things which cannot be seen.

  8. Pay attention even to trifles.

  9. Do nothing which is of no use.

Writings of Miyamoto Musashi

Gorin No Sho The Book of Five Rings, (in reference to the Five Rings of Zen Buddhism)

The 19 Articles of Self-Discipline

The 35 Articles of Swordsmanship

Dokkodo, (The Path of Self-Reliance)

Miyamoto Musashi in Fiction

Thirty-six films have been made about Miyamoto Musashi.

(find and insert list)

Yoshikawa Eiji's famous novel Musashi – originally serialized in Asahi Shinbun prior to World War Two – is more or less based on historical events with added fictitious characters. The comic book Vagabond is based on this novel. The movies Samurai I, II, and III are also based on the novel Musashi, and are regarded as Japan's Gone With the Wind. They star Mifune Toshirō, the long term collaborator of Kurosawa Akira, as Musashi.

See Also

Sasaki Ganryū (pg XX), Mifune Toshirō (pg 214), Kurosawa Akira (pg XXX),

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyamoto_Musashi

Miyazaki City

Capital of Miyazaki Prefecture (pg XXX).

Miyazaki Prefecture

Area: 7,734 km2 (1995)

Capital: Miyazaki

Population: 1,190,000 (1996)

Miyazawa Kiichi

Prime Minister from 5 November 1991 to 9 August 1993. (Replaced by Hosokawa Morihiro (pg XXX)).

Miyoshi Chōkei

Lived 1523 to 1564.

Samurai.

Mizuno Nobumoto

Died 1576.

Son of Mizuno Tadamasa. Brother of Mizuno Tadashige.

Switched his allegiance from the Imagawa family to Oda Nobuhide.

Killed by Tokugawa Ieyasu on orders from Oda Nobunaga. (Why?)

Mizuno Rentarō

Lived

Cabinet Positions Held by Mizuno Rentarō

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Terauchi

Home Affairs

23 Apr 1918

29 Sep 1918

Katō Tomosaburō

Home Affairs

12 June 1922

02 Sep 1923

Kiyoura

Home Affairs

07 Jan 1924

11 June 1924

Tanaka G.

Education

02 June 1927

25 May 1928

Table 78Cabinet Positions Held by Mizuno Rentarō

Mizuno Tadashige

Lived 1541 to 1600.

Son of Mizuno Tadamasa. Brother of Mizuno Nobumoto.

Was given his brother's fief of Kariya (?? koku) in Mikawa.

Was killed by Kagai Hidemasa. (Why?)

Mochizuke Keisuke

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Tanaka G.

Communications

20 Apr 1927

23 May 1928

Tanaka G.

Home Affairs

23 May 1928

02 July 1929

Okada

Communications

12 Sep 1935

09 Mar 1936

Table 79Cabinet Positions Held by Mochizuke Keisuke

Mommu-tennō

The 42nd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 697 to 707.

Momozono-tennō

The 116th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1747 to 1762.

Mongol Invasions

Montoku-tennō

The 55th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 850 to 858.

Mori Arinori

Lived 1847 to 1889.

Mōri Family

Family of daimyō, descended from Ōe Hiromoto. Established themselves in Aki Province.

Mori Kaku

Lived 1883 to 1932.

Morikuni

Lived 1301 to 1333.

The 9th Kamakura Shōgun.

Ruled 1308 to 1333.

Son of the Shōgun Hisaakira. Grandson of the Emperor Gofukakusa.

See Also

Gofukakusa-tennō (pg. X), Hisaakira (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Mōri Motonari

Lived 1497 to 1571.

Morinaga

Lived 1308 to 1335.

The 10th Kamakura Shōgun.

Ruled 1333 to 1334.

Son of the Emperor Godaigo and Minamoto Chikako.

See Also

Gofukakusa-tennō (pg. X), Hisaakira (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Mori Nagayoshi

Mori Ogai

Lived 1862 to 1922.

Morioka City

Capital of Iwate Prefecture (pg. X)

Mōri Takamoto

Lived

Mōri Terumoto

Lived 22 Jan. 1553 to 27 April 1625

Son of Mōri Takamoto.

Fought against Toyotomi Hideyoshi but was eventually overcome. Participated in the Kūshū campaign (1587) on Hideyoshi's side.

Built Hiroshima Castle.

Terumoto was one of the five Tairō appointed by Hideyoshi.

At the height of his power, Terumoto controlled 1.2 million koku. (when? where?)

Sided against Tokugawa Ieysasu but was not present at the Battle of Sekigahara. Terumoto was in Ōsaka Castle at the time and surrendered to Ieyasu soon after Sekigahara. Ieyasu reduced Terumoto's domains, leaving him only Nagato and Suō Provinces, worth 369,000 koku total.

See Also

Hiroshima Castle (pg. X), Kyūshū Campaign (pg. X), Mōri Takamoto (pg. X), Nagato Province (pg. X), Ōsaka Castle (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X), Suō Province (pg. X), Tairō (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieysasu (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Moriyama Hisakane

Mori Yoshirō

Born July 14, 1937 in Ishikawa Prefecture.

Prime Minister from 5 April 2000 to 4 July 2000 and 4 July 2000 to 26 April 2001. Replaced by Koizumi Jun'ichirō (pg XXX).

Motoda Eifu

aka Motoda Nakazane

Lived 1818 to 1891

Motoda Hajime

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Yamamoto

Communications

20 Feb 1913

16 Apr 1914

Hara

Railways

15 May 1920

13 Nov 1921

Takahashi

Railways

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Table 80Cabinet Positions Held by Motoda Hajime

Motoori Norinaga

Lived 1730 to 1801.

Mukai Chiaki

Ms. Mukai was the first Japanese woman to become an astronaut. As of September 2001, she has participated in two missions on the U.S. space shuttle.

Munetaka

Lived 1242 to 1274.

The 6th Kamakura Shōgun.

Ruled 1252 to 1266.

Son of the Emperor Gosaga.

Replaced the deposed Fujiwara Yoritsuga as shōgun.

See Also

Gosaga-tennō (pg. X), Fujiwara Yoritsuga (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Murakami-tennō

The 62nd emperor of Japan.

Lived 2 June 926 to 25 May 967.

Reigned 20 April 946 to 25 May 967.

Father of Reizei-tennō (pg XXX).

Murakami Yoshikiyo

Lived 1501 to 1573.

Fought against the both Takeda Nobutora and Takeda Shingen. Was allied with Uesugi Kenshin.

Fought at (one or more of?) the Battles of Kawanakajima.

See Also

Kawanakajima, Battles of (pg. X), Takeda Nobutora (pg. X), Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Uesugi Kenshin (pg. X),

Murasaki Shikibu

Died 992.

Daughter of Fujiwara Tametoki. Wife of Fujiwara Nobutaka.

The author of The Tale of Genji (pg 352), a masterpiece of world literature.

Also left a diary, appropriately enough known as The Dairy of Murasaki Shikibu.

Murase Naokai

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Konoe

Chief of Legislative Bureau

22 July 1940

18 July 1941

3rd Konoe

Chief of Legislative Bureau

18 July 1941

18 Oct 1941

Suzuki K.

Chief of Legislative Bureau

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Higashikuni

Chief of Legislative Bureau

17 Aug 1945

09 Oct 1945

Table 81Cabinet Positions Held by Murase Naokai

Murata Shōzō

Lived

Cabinet Positions Held by Murata Shōzō

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Konoe

Communications

22 July 1940

18 July 1941

2nd Konoe

Railways

22 July 1940

28 Sep 1940

3rd Konoe

Communications

18 July 1941

18 Oct 1941

3rd Konoe

Railways

18 July 1941

18 Oct 1941

Table 82Cabinet Positions Held by Murata Shōzō

Murayama Ryohei

Lived 1850 to 1933.

Murayama Tomiichi

Prime Minister from 30 June 1994 to 11 January 1996. (Replaced by Hashimoto Ryūtarō (pg XXX)).

Muromachi Period

Japanese: 室町時代 (Muromachi Jidai)

The Muromachi period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Ashikaga shōgunate, which was officially established in 1336 by Ashikaga Takauji. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki was driven out of Kyōto by Oda Nobunaga.

The early years of 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period is also known as the Nanboku-cho or Northern and Southern Court period. The later years of 1467 to the end of the Muromachi period is also known as the Sengoku period.

Ashikaga Bakufu

The ensuing period of Ashikaga rule (1336-1573) was called Muromachi for the district in Kyōto where the third shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu established his residence in 1378. What distinguished the Ashikaga bakufu from that of Kamakura was that, whereas Kamakura had existed in equilibrium with the Kyōto court, Ashikaga took over the remnants of the imperial government. Nevertheless, the Ashikaga bakufu was not as strong as the Kamakura had been and was greatly preoccupied by the civil war. Not until the rule of Yoshimitsu (as third shogun, 1368-94, and chancellor, 1394-1408) did a semblance of order emerge.

Yoshimitsu allowed the constables, who had had limited powers during the Kamakura period, to become strong regional rulers, later called daimy. In time, a balance of power evolved between the shogun and the daimyō; the three most prominent daimyō families rotated as deputies to the shogun at Kyōto. Yoshimitsu was finally successful in reunifying the Northern Court and the Southern Court in 1392, but, despite his promise of greater balance between the imperial lines, the Northern Court maintained control over the throne thereafter. The line of shoguns gradually weakened after Yoshimitsu and increasingly lost power to the daimyō and other regional strongmen. The shogun's decisions about imperial succession became meaningless, and the daimyō backed their own candidates. In time, the Ashikaga family had its own succession problems, resulting finally in the Onin War (1467-77), which left Kyōto devastated and effectively ended the national authority of the bakufu. The power vacuum that ensued launched a century of anarchy (see Provincial Wars and Foreign Contacts).

Economic and Cultural Developments

Contact with Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) China was renewed during the Muromachi period after the Chinese sought support in suppressing Japanese pirates in coastal areas of China. Japanese pirates of this era and region were referred to as 倭寇, wakō, by the Chinese. Wanting to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wakō threat, Yoshimitsu accepted a relationship with the Chinese that was to last for half a century. Japanese wood, sulfur, copper ore, swords, and folding fans were traded for Chinese silk, porcelain, books, and coins, in what the Chinese considered tribute but the Japanese saw as profitable trade.

During the time of the Ashikaga bakufu, a new national culture, called Muromachi culture, emerged from the bakufu headquarters in Kyōto to reach all levels of society. Zen Buddhism played a large role in spreading not only religious but also artistic influences, especially those derived from Chinese painting of the Chinese Song (960-1279), Yuan, and Ming dynasties. The proximity of the imperial court and the bakufu resulted in a commingling of imperial family members, courtiers, daimyō, samurai, and Zen priests. Art of all kinds--architecture, literature, No drama, comedy, poetry, the tea ceremony, landscape gardening, and flower arranging--all flourished during Muromachi times.

Shintoism

There also was renewed interest in Shinto, which had quietly coexisted with Buddhism during the centuries of the latter's predominance. In fact, Shinto, which lacked its own scriptures and had few prayers, as a result of syncretic practices begun in the Nara period, had widely adopted Shingon Buddhist rituals. Between the eighth and fourteenth centuries, Shintoism was nearly totally absorbed by Buddhism and became known as Ryobu Shinto (Dual Shinto). The Mongol invasions in the late thirteenth century, however, had evoked a national consciousness of the role of the kamikaze in defeating the enemy. Less than fifty years later (1339-43), Kitabatake Chikafusa (1293-1354), the chief commander of the Southern Court forces, wrote the Jin'nōshōtōki (神皇正統記, Chronicle of the Direct Descent of the Divine Sovereigns). This chronicle emphasized the importance of maintaining the divine descent of the imperial line from Amaterasu to the current emperor, a condition that gave Japan a special national polity (kokutai). Besides reenforcing the concept of the emperor as a deity, the Jin'nōshōtōki provided a Shinto view of history, which stressed the divine nature of all Japanese and the country's spiritual supremacy over China and India. As a result, a change gradually occurred in the balance between the dual Buddhist-Shinto religious practice. Between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, Shinto reemerged as the primary belief system, developed its own philosophy and scripture (based on Confucian and Buddhist canons), and became a powerful nationalistic force.

Provincial Wars and Foreign Contacts

The Onin War led to serious political fragmentation and obliteration of domains: a great struggle for land and power ensued among bushi chieftains until the mid-sixteenth century. Peasants rose against their landlords and samurai against their overlords as central control virtually ceased. The imperial house was left impoverished, and the bakufu was controlled by contending chieftains in Kyōto. The provincial domains that emerged after the Onin War were smaller and easier to control. Many new small daimyō arose from among the samurai who had overthrown their great overlords. Border defenses were improved, and wellfortified castle towns were built to protect the newly opened domains, for which land surveys were made, roads built, and mines opened. New house laws provided practical means of administration, stressing duties and rules of behavior. Emphasis was put on success in war, estate management, and finance. Threatening alliances were guarded against through strict marriage rules. Aristocratic society was overwhelmingly military in character. The rest of society was controlled in a system of vassalage. The shoen were obliterated, and court nobles and absentee landlords were dispossessed. The new daimyō directly controlled the land, keeping the peasantry in permanent serfdom in exchange for protection.

Economic Effect of War Between States

Most wars of the period were short and localized, although they occurred throughout Japan. By 1500 the entire country was engulfed in civil wars. Rather than disrupting the local economies, however, the frequent movement of armies stimulated the growth of transportation and communications, which in turn provided additional revenues from customs and tolls. To avoid such fees, commerce shifted to the central region, which no daimyō had been able to control, and to the Inland Sea. Economic developments and the desire to protect trade achievements brought about the establishment of merchant and artisan guilds.

Western Influence

By the end of the Muromachi period, the first Europeans had arrived. The Portuguese landed in southern Kyushu in 1543 and within two years were making regular port calls. The Spanish arrived in 1587, followed by the Dutch in 1609. The Japanese began to attempt studies of European civilization in depth, and new opportunities were presented for the economy, along with serious political challenges. European firearms, fabrics, glassware, clocks, tobacco, and other Western innovations were traded for Japanese gold and silver. Significant wealth was accumulated through trade, and lesser daimyō, especially in Kyushu, greatly increased their power. Provincial wars were made more deadly with the introduction of firearms, such as muskets and cannons, and greater use of infantry.



Christianity

Christianity had an impact on Japan, largely through the efforts of the Jesuits, led first by Saint Francis Xavier (1506- 52), who arrived in Kagoshima in southern Kyushu in 1549. Both daimyō and merchants seeking better trade arrangements as well as peasants were among the converts. By 1560 Kyōto had become another major area of missionary activity in Japan. In 1568 the port of Nagasaki, in northwestern Kyushu, was established by a Christian daimyō and was turned over to Jesuit administration in 1579. By 1582 there were as many as 150,000 converts (two percent of the population) and 200 churches. But bakufu tolerance for this alien influence diminished as the country became more unified and the openness of the period decreased. Proscriptions against Christianity began in 1587 and outright persecutions in 1597. Although foreign trade was still encouraged, it was closely regulated, and by 1640 the exclusion and suppression of Christianity had become national policy (see Tokugawa Period, 1600-1867 , this ch.; Religious and Philosophical Traditions , ch. 2).

Sources and Suggested Reading

This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. – Japan available at: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html.

See Also

Nanboku-cho, Sengoku, Kemmu restoration, Azuchi-Momoyama period

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muromachi_period

Musashi Province

A province in the area that is today Saitama and Tōkyō Prefectures. Musashi bordered on Kai, Kōzuke, Sagami, Shimōsa, and Shimotsuke Provinces.

See Also

Kai Province (pg. X), Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Sagami Province (pg. X), Saitama Prefecture (pg. X), Shimōsa Province (pg. X), Shimotsuke Province (pg. X), Tōkyō Prefecture (pg. X),

Muto Sanji

Lived 1867 to 1934.

Mutsu Munemitsu

Lived 1844 to 1897.

Cabinet Positions Held by Mutsu Munemitsu

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Yamagata

Agriculture & Commerce

17 May 1890

06 May 1891

1st Matsukata

Agriculture & Commerce

06 May 1891

14 Mar 1892

2nd Itō

Foreign Affairs

08 Aug 1892

05 June 1895

2nd Itō

Foreign Affairs

03 Apr 1896

30 May 1896

Table 83Cabinet Positions Held by Mutsu Munemitsu

Mutsu Province

A province that is today Aomori Prefecture. Mutsu bordered on Rikuchū and Ugo Provinces.

See Also

Aomori Province (pg. X), Rikuchū Province (pg. X), Ugo Province (pg. X),

Nabeyama Sadachika – Nunobeyama, Battle of

Nabeyama Sadachika

Lived 1901 to 1979.

Nagai Kafu

Lived 1879 to 1959.

Nagai Ryūtarō

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Saitō

Colonization

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

1st Konoe

Communications

04 June 1937

05 Jan 1939

Abe

Communications

30 Aug 1939

16 Jan 1940

Abe

Railways

30 Aug 1939

29 Nov 1939

Table 84Cabinet Positions Held by Nagai Ryūtarō

Nagakute, Battle of

Took place 1584.

Hideyoshi forces raided into Mikawa. Ieyasu attacked them from behind. After soom initial skirmishing, the sides faced off near the village of Nagakute. Mori Nagayoshi and Ikeda Nobuteru, two of Hideyoshi's commanders, were killed in the fighting. However, Hideyoshi was already on his way with reinforcements. It became a stalemate and with no advantage to continued fighting, both sides withdrew.

See Also

Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieysasu (pg. X), Mikawa Province (pg. X), Mori Nagayoshi (pg. X), Ikeda Nobuteru (pg. X),

Nagano City

The capital city of Nagano Prefecture.

Nagano Prefecture

Area: 13,585 km2 (1995)

Capital: Nagano

Population: 2,190,000 (1996)

Nagasaki, Bombing of

On 9 August 1945, the United States military dropped an atomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki. This was three days after a similar bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. Japan surrendered six days later, on 15 August 1945.

The role of the atomic bombs in bringing about Japan's surrender is a major historical controversy. Some historians suggest that the bombings were militarily unnecessary, perhaps more of a show of force against the Soviet Union. Others contend that the only alternative to the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki was an invasion of the home islands themselves---which could have resulted in hundreds of thousands or possibly millions of Allied and Japanese soldiers and civilians injured or killed. Thus, in this view, the power demonstated by the Allies in the form of the atom bombs was needed to convince the Japanese government to accept surrender and spare both sides a protracted and horribly destructive invasion.

President Truman authorized the use of the weapons and insisted to the end of his life that he considered them no different than any other weapon at his disposal.

The firebombing of Tokyo killed a comparable number of people (more during the bombing and as a result of the fires, but possibly fewer long term victims as the firebombs did not give anyone radiation sickness). The biggest difference being that the bombing of Tokyo involved many planes and thousands of bombs whereas Hiroshima and Nagasaki were destroyed by one plane and one bomb each.

Nagasaki lies at the head of a long bay which forms the best natural harbor on the southern Japanese home island of Kyūshū. The main commercial and residential area of the city lies on a small plain near the end of the bay. Two rivers divided by a mountain spur form the two main valleys in which the city lies. This mountain spur and the irregular lay-out of the city tremendously reduced the area of destruction, so that at first glance Nagasaki appeared to have been less devastated than Hiroshima.

The heavily build-up area of the city is confined by the terrain to less than 4 square miles out of a total of about 35 square miles in the city as a whole.

The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest sea ports in southern Japan and was of great war-time importance because of its many and varied industries, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The narrow long strip attacked was of particular importance because of its industries. In contrast to many modern aspects of Nagasaki, the residences almost without exception were of flimsy, typical Japanese construction, consisting of wood or wood-frame buildings, with wood walls with or without plaster, and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also housed in wooden buildings or flimsily built masonry buildings. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan and therefore residences were constructed adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as close as it was possible to build them throughout the entire industrial valley.

Nagasaki had not been subjected to large scale bombing prior to the explosion of the atomic bomb there. On August 1st, 1945, however, a number of high explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few of these bombs hit in the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city. Several of the bombs hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works and six bombs landed at the Nagasaki Medical School and Hospital, with three direct hits on buildings there. While the damage from these few bombs were relatively small, it created considerable concern in Nagasaki and a number of people, principally school children, were evacuated to rural areas for safety, thus reducing the population in the city at the time of the atomic attack.

On the morning of August 9th, 1945, at about 7:50 A.M., Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the “All clear” signal was given at 8:30. When only two B-29 superfortresses were sighted at 10:53 the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given. A few moments later, at 11:00 o'clock, the observation B-29 dropped instruments attached to three parachutes and at 11:02 the other plane released the atomic bomb.

The bomb exploded high over the industrial valley of Nagasaki, almost midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works, in the south, and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works (Torpedo Works), in the north, the two principal targets of the city.

Despite its extreme importance, the first bombing mission on Hiroshima had been almost routine. The second mission was not so uneventful. Again the crew was specially trained and selected; but bad weather introduced some momentous complications. These complications are best described in the brief account of the mission's weaponeer, Comdr., now Capt., F. L. Ashworth, U.S.N., who was in technical command of the bomb and was charged with the responsibility of insuring that the bomb was successfully dropped at the proper time and on the designated target. His narrative runs as follows:

``The night of our take-off was one of tropical rain squalls, and flashes of lightning stabbed into the darkness with disconcerting regularity. The weather forecast told us of storms all the way from the Marianas to the Empire. Our rendezvous was to be off the southeast coast of Kyūshū, some 1500 miles away. There we were to join with our two companion observation B-29's that took off a few minutes behind us. Skillful piloting and expert navigation brought us to the rendezvous without incident.
``About five minutes after our arrival, we were joined by the first of our B-29's. The second, however, failed to arrive, having apparently been thrown off its course by storms during the night. We waited 30 minutes and then proceeded without the second plane toward the target area.
``During the approach to the target the special instruments installed in the plane told us that the bomb was ready to function. We were prepared to drop the second atomic bomb on Japan. But fate was against us, for the target was completely obscured by smoke and haze. Three times we attempted bombing runs, but without success. Then with anti-aircraft fire bursting around us and with a number of enemy fighters coming up after us, we headed for our secondary target, Nagasaki.
``The bomb burst with a blinding flash and a huge column of black smoke swirled up toward us. Out of this column of smoke there boiled a great swirling mushroom of gray smoke, luminous with red, flashing flame, that reached to 40,000 feet in less than 8 minutes. Below through the clouds we could see the pall of black smoke ringed with fire that covered what had been the industrial area of Nagasaki.
``By this time our fuel supply was dangerously low, so after one quick circle of Nagasaki, we headed direct for Okinawa for an emergency landing and refueling''.

References:

THE ATOMIC BOMBINGS OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI by The Manhattan Engineer District, 1946. (Available online)

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Nagasaki

Nagasaki City

The capital of Nagasaki Prefecture.

The second city in Japan to be destroyed by an atomic bomb. This was on 9 August 1945.

Nagasaki is a city at the south-western coast of Japan. Founded before 1500, it was originally a secluded harbor village with little historical significance until contact with European explorers in the mid-16th century, when a Portuguese ship accidentally landed at Kagoshima Prefecture in 1542. The zealous Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in another part of the territory in 1549, but although he left for China in 1551 and died soon after departure his followers who remained behind converted a number of daimyō (warlords). The most notable among them was Omura Sumitada, who derived great profit from his conversion through an accompanying deal to receive a portion of the trade from Portuguese ships at a port they established in Nagasaki in 1571 with his assistance.

The little harbor village quickly grew into a diverse port city, and Portuguese products imported through Nagasaki (such as tobacco, bread, tempura, sponge-cake, and new clothing styles) were assimilated into popular Japanese culture. The Portuguese also brought with them many goods of Chinese origin.

In 1587 Nagasaki's prosperity was threatened when Hideyoshi Toyotomi came to power. Concerned with the large Christian influence in southern Japan, he ordered the expulsion of all missionaries. Omura had given the Jesuits partial administrative control of Nagasaki, and the city now returned to imperial control. Japanese and foreign Christians were persecuted, with Hideyoshi crucifying 26 Christians in Nagasaki in 1596 to deter any attempt to usurp his power. Portuguese traders were not ostracized, however, and so the city continued to thrive.

When Tokugawa Ieyasu took power almost twenty years later conditions did not much improve. Christianity was banned outright in 1614 and all missionaries were deported, as well as daimyō who would not renounce the religion. A brutal campaign of persecution followed, with thousands across Nagasaki and other parts of Japan killed or tortured.

The Christians did put up some initial resistance, with the Nagasaki Shimabara enclave of destitute Christians and local peasants rising in rebellion in 1637. Ultimately numbering 40,000, they captured Hara Castle and humiliated the local daimyō. The shōgun dispatched 120,000 soldiers to quash the uprising, thus ending Japan's brief 'Christian Century.' Christians still remained, of course, but all went into hiding, still the victims of occasional inquisitions.

The Dutch had been quietly making inroads into Japan during this time, despite the shōgunate's official policy of ending foreign influence within the country. The Dutch demonstrated that they were interested in trading alone, and demonstrated their commitment during the Shimabara rebellion by firing on the Christians in support of the shōgun. In 1641 they were granted Dejima, an artificial island in Nagasaki Bay, as a base of operations. From this date until 1855, Japan's contact with the outside world was limited to Nagasaki. In 1720 the ban on Dutch books was lifted, causing hundreds of scholars to flood into Nagasaki to study European science and art.

After US Commodore Matthew Perry landed in 1853 and the shōgunate crumbled shortly afterward, Japan opened its doors again. Nagasaki became a free port in 1859 and modernization began in earnest in 1868. With the Meiji Restoration, Nagasaki quickly began to assume some economic dominance. Its main industry was ship building.

This very industry would eventually make it a target in World War II. At 11:02 am on August 9 1945, the American B-29 Superfortress “Bock's Car,” in search of the shipyards, instead spotting the Mitsubishi Arms Works through a break in the clouds. It dropped the “Fat Man” nuclear bomb on this target, the second nuclear bomb to be detonated over Japan. 75,000 of Nagasaki's 240,000 residents were killed, followed by the death of at least as many from resulting sickness and injury.

The city rebuilt after the war, albeit dramatically changed, as any city would be after such colossal damage. New temples were built, and new churches as well, since the Christian presence never died out and even increased dramatically in numbers after the war. Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, like the one-legged torii gate and a stone arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Atomic Bomb Museum. But Nagasaki also remains first and foremost a port city, supporting a rich shipping industry and setting a strong example of perseverance and peace.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Nagasaki

See Also

Hiroshima, Bombing of (pg. X), Nagasaki, Bombing of (pg X), Hiroshima City (pg. X)

Nagasaki Prefecture

Area: 4091 km2 (1995)

Capital: Nagasaki

Population: 1,550,000 (1996)

Nagashima, Seige of (1571)

Took place in 1571.

Nagashima was a fortress controlled by the Ikkō-ikki. Actually, it was a whole series of fortresses and defensive works. Nobunaga attacked three times over the course of four years, before finally destroying Nagashima itself.

Oda's forces attacked across a river. Unfortunately, the samurai's horses got stuck in the mud. The samurai that managed to drag themselves to shore --- while being fired on --- were drowned when the defenders opened a dike and flooded the area. It was a total disaster for Nobunaga.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Ikkō-ikki (pg. X), Nagashima, Seige of (1573) (pg. X), Nagashima, Seige of (1574) (pg. X),

Nagashima, Seige of (1573)

Took place in 1573.

Nobunaga's run of ill-luck with the Ikkō-ikki continued when a rainstorm hit just as he was about to open the battle with his arquebuses. The rain rendered them useless and left his men in a weak defensive position. The Ikkō-ikki troops immediately counter-attacked. Their arquebuses were covered during the storm and they started using them as soon as the rain let up. The Ikkō-ikki troops came close to killing Nobunaga. He retreated.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Ikkō-ikki (pg. X), Nagashima, Seige of (1571) (pg. X), Nagashima, Third Seige of (1574) (pg. X),

Nagashima, Seige of (1574)

Fate was kinder to Oda Nobunaga on his third attempt to reduce the fortress at Nagashima.

While a fleet of ships lead by Kuki Yoshitaka blockaded and bombarded the area, Oda took the outer forts. Eventually, the defenders were forced back, into the castles of Ganshōji and Nagashima. There were about 20,000 of them and they were now completely cut off. As their situation worsened, it became more and more pointless for Oda's enemies to try to help them, and the defenders found themselves without anyone willing to try to help them.

Oda's men built a wooden wall from one outer fort to another, cutting the Ikkō-ikki off from the outside and preventing them from seeing what was coming. Nobunaga had wood piled against the wall and lit of fire. The fire spread to Ganshōji and Nagashima. All 20,000 of the defenders were killed.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Ikkō-ikki (pg. X), Nagashima, Seige of (1571) (pg. X), Nagashima, Seige of (1573) (pg. X), Kuki Yoshitaka (pg. X),

Nagashima Shigeo

Baseball player and later the manager of the Tokyo Giants. He retired at the end of the 2001 season.

Nagashino, Battle of

1573, Nagashino in Mikawa

Takeda Katsuyori beseiged Okudaira Nobumasa at Nagashino Castle in 1573. Nobumasa was holding the castle for Tokugawa Ieyasu. Both Ieyasu and Oda Nobunaga sent troops and Katsuyori was defeated.

Nagashino Castle

Castle in Mikawa Province. Originally the home of the Suganuma family, Tokugawa Ieyasu took the castle in 1573. Later that year, Tokugawa and Oda forces combined to defeat Takeda Katsuyori when besieged Nagashino Castle.

Nagato Province

Japanese: 長門

Nagato, often called Chōshū, was an old province of Japan. It was at the extreme western end of Hōnshū, in the area that is today Yamaguchi Prefecture. Nagato bordered on Iwami and Suō provinces.

In 1871, with the abolition of the domain and the establishment of the prefectures, the provinces of Nagato and Suo were combined and eventually became today's Yamaguchi prefecture.

The oligarchy that came to power as a result of the Meiji Restoration of 1868 had a strong representation from Chōshū, as Itō Hirobumi, Yamagata Aritomo, and Kido Kōin were from the province. Other natives famous for their role in the restoration include Yoshida Shoin, Takasugi Shinsaku, Kido Takayoshi (aka Katsura Kogoro) and Kusaka Genzui among others.

See Also

Iwami Province (pg. X), Suō Province (pg. X), Yamaguchi Prefecture (pg. X), Meiji Restoration (pg. X)

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagato_Province

Nagoya Castle

Shiba Yoshimune built the original castle around 1525. Oda Nobuhide took it from Imagawa Ujitoyo in 1532, but later abandoned it.

In 1610 Ieyasu ordered the various daimyō to help with the building of a new castle on the site.

Nagoya City (Aichi Prefecture)

The capital city of Aichi Prefecture (pg XXX).

Nagoya City (Nagasaki Prefecture)

A city in Nagasaki Prefecture. Toyotomi Hideyoshi directed the invasion of Korea from Nagoya, at that time a part of Hizen province.

Naha City

The capital city of Okinawa Prefecture (pg XXX).

Nairan

Old government position which translates as `Inspector of Imperial Documents.'

Naitō Family (Mikawa)

Descended from Fujiwara Hidesato (pg. X).

Naitō Family (Tamba)

Genzaemon $\rightarrow$ Yukiyasu

Naitō Genzaemon

Father of Naitō Yukiyasu.

Served Oda Nobunaga. Was given Kameyama (200,000 koku) in Tamba.

Naitō Masanaga

Lived 1568 to 1634.

Naitō Nobunari

Lived 1545 to 1612.

Naitō Tadakatsu

Died 1680.

Naitō Yukiyasu

Died 1626.

Baptised in 1564. Was banished to Manila in 1614.

Nakae Chomin

aka Nakae Tokusuke.

Lived 1847 to 1901.

Philosopher. Studied in France from 1871 to 1874. Translated some of the writings of J.J. Rousseau into Japanese.

Nakagawa Family

Daimyō family descended from Minamoto Yorimitsu (pg. X).

Nakagawa Hidemasa

Eldest son of Nakagawa Kiyohide.

Died fighting in Korea.

Nakagawa Hidenari

Lived 1570 to 1612.

Nakagawa Kiyohide

Lived 1542 to 1583.

Nakahashi Tokugorō

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hara

Education

29 Sep 1918

13 Nov 1921

Takahashi

Education

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Tanaka G.

Commerce & Industry

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Inukai (Check dates)

Home Affairs

13 Dec 1931

16 Mar 1932

Table 85Cabinet Positions Held by Nakahashi Tokugorō

Nakajima Chikuhei

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Konoe

Railways

04 June 1937

05 Jan 1939

Higashikuni

Munitions

17 Aug 1945

26 Aug 1945

Higashikuni

Commerce & Industry

26 Aug 1945

09 Oct 1945

Table 86Cabinet Positions Held by Nakajima Chikuhei

Nakamigawa Hikojiro

Lived 1854 to 1901.

Nakamikado-tennō

The 114th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1710 to 1735.

Nakamura Masanao

aka Nakamura Keiu.

Lived 1832 to 1891.

Nakano Seigo

Lived 1886 to 1943.

Nakasone Yasuhiro

Prime Minister from 26 November 1982 to 27 December 1983, 27 December 1983 to 22 July 1986, and 22 July 1986 to 6 November 1987. Replaced by Takeshita Noboru (pg XXX).

Nakayama Miki

Lived 1798 to 1887.

Namamugi Incident

Nanao, Battle of

Nara City

The capital city of Nara Prefecture.

Narahashi Wataru

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Shidehara

Chief of Legislative Bureau

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Shidehara

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Shidehara

State

26 Feb 1946

22 May 1946

Table 87Cabinet Positions Held by Narahashi Wataru

Nara City

The capital of Nara Prefecture.

Nara Prefecture

Area: 3,691 km2 (1995)

Capital: Nara

Population: 1,440,000 (1996)

Narinaga

Lived 1325 to 1338.

The 11th and last Kamakura Shōgun.

Ruled 1334 to 1338.

Son of the Emperor Godaigo.

Deposed and killed, along with his brother, Tsunenaga, in 1338.

See Also

Godaigo-tennō (pg. X), Kamakura Shōgunate (pg. X),

Natsume Soseki

aka Natsume Kinnosuke.

Lived 1867 to 1916.

Nengō

Japanese: 年号

A calendar system used in Japan to count years.

Like similar systems in East Asia, the era name system was originally derived from Chinese Imperial practice, although the Japanese system is independent from the Chinese or Korean calendar systems. Unlike other similar systems, the Japanese era name is still in use. Government offices usually require era names and years for official papers.

Sometimes an era name is expressed with the first letter of the romanized name. For example, S55 means Showa 55 years. With 64 years, Showa is the longest era.

Modern Era Names

With the modernization of Japan after the ascension of the Meiji Emperor and now under current Japanese law since 1979, it has become practice to change era names only upon occasion of imperial succession. Also, the deceased emperor will thereafter be referred to as his corresponding era name posthumously. Under current law, only males can assume the throne.

In the Japanese language, the current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to as Tennō Heika (天皇陛下, His Majesty the Emperor) or rarely and less formally as Kinjō Tennō (今上天皇, current emperor) and even more rarely, if ever by his name Akihito. To call the current emperor by the current era name Heisei even in English would be a faux pas as it is and will be his posthumous name.

In modern practice, the first year of a reign (元年 gannen) starts immediately upon the emperor's ascension to the throne, but always ends on December 31st. Subsequent years follow the Western calendar. Consequently, 1989 is known as both “Showa 64” and “Heisei 1”, although technically Showa 64 ended on January 7th with Hirohito's death.

Historic Era Names

Historically however, prior to the Meiji Restoration, era names were changed on many different occasions such as celebration, major political incidents, natural disasters, and so on, but the emperors posthumous name never took the name of an era. Incidentally, on modern official papers, those who were born prior to the Meiji era did not write the era name in which they born, but wrote Edo period (though now no one born over 130 years ago in that time period is still alive now).

See Also

Chronological List of Nengō (pg 406)

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at (DOUBLE CHECK):

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Japanese_Era_Names

New Structure Movement

Nichiren

Lived 1222 to 1282

The founder of a sect of Buddhism.

Nichirō-Sensō

See Russo-Japanese War on page XXX.

Niigata City

The capital of Niigata Prefecture.

Niigata Prefecture

Area: 12,582 km2 (1995)

Capital: Niigata

Population: 2,490,000 (1996)

Niijima Jo

Lived 1843 to 1890.

Nijō-tennō

The 78th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1158 to 1165.

Father of Rokujō-tennō (pg. X).

Nimmyō-tennō

The 54th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 833 to 850.

Nimpei

Nengō: 1151--1153.

aka Nimpyō.

Nine-Powers Treaty

Treaty negotiated by France, Great Britain, Japan, and the United States (and the other four were??) at the Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922.

The Nine-Powers Treaty confirmed the “Open Door” policy in China.

See Also

Washington Naval Conference (pg 376)

Ninji

Nengō: 1240--1242.

Ninju

Nengō: 851--853.

Ninken-tennō

The 24th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 488 to 498.

Ninkō-tennō

The 120th emperor of Japan.

Lived 21 Feb 1800 to 26 Jan 1846.

Reigned 22 March 1817 to 26 Jan 1846.

Ninna

aka Ninwa.

Nengō: 885--888.

Ninnan

aka Nin'an.

Nengō: 1166--1168.

Ninomiya Sontoku

Lived 1787 to 1856

Nintoku-tennō

The 16th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 313 to 399.

Nishi Amane

Lived 1829 to 1897.

Nishida Kitaro

Lived 1870 to 1945.

Nishida Mitsugu

aka Nishida Zei

aka Nishida Chikara

Lived 1901 to 1937

Nishihara Loans

Nishimura Shigeki

Lived 1828 to 1902.

Nishio Suehiro

Born 1891.

Cabinet Positions Held by Nishio Suehiro

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Katayama

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

01 June 1947

10 Mar 1948

Katayama

State: Without Portfolio

01 June 1947

10 Mar 1948

Ashida

State: Without Portfolio

10 Mar 1948

06 July 1948

Table 88Cabinet Positions Held by Nishio Suehiro

Nisshin-Sensō

See Sino-Japanese War on page XXX.

Nitobe Inazo

Lived 1862 to 1933.

Nitta Family

Daimyō family descended from Minamoto Yoshishige and native to Nitta in Kōzuke Province.

Noda Castle

In Mikawa, originally controlled by the Suganuma family.

The castle was beseiged in 1573 by the forces of Takeda Shingen. It was at that seige that Shingen was mortally wounded by a sniper's bullet.

Noda, Seige of

Took place in 1573.

Takeda Shingen (pg XXX) laid seige to the castle (controlled by ?). Shingen was hit by a sniper's bullet and died (how much?) later. His army withdrew but his death was kept secret for two years.

Noda Uichi

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

3rd Yoshida

Construction



3rd Yoshida

State: Director Administrative Management Agency



??

State: Director Reparations Agency



Table 89Cabinet Positions Held by Noda Uichi

Noda Utarō

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hara

Communications

29 Sep 1918

13 Nov 1921

Takahashi

Communications

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

1st Katō Takaaki

Commerce & Industry

17 Apr 1925

02 Aug 1925

Table 90Cabinet Positions Held by Noda Utarō

Nogi Maresuke

aka Nogi Kiten?

Lived 11 Nov. 1849 to 13 Sept. 1912.

Samurai from Chōshū. Sided with the anti-Bakufu forces and joined the new Imperial Army after the fall of the Tokugawa Bakufu. Fought in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 and was in charge of the forces that took Port Arthur in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In between those wars, from 1896 to 1898, Maresuke served as governor-general of Formosa.

He killed himself to follow his lord – the Emperor Meiji – in death. His (Maresuke's) wife also killed herself as an act of loyalty.

Nomonhan

Nomonhan is a small village near the border between Mongolia and Manchuria, China south of the Chinese city of Manzhouli.

In the summer of 1939 it was the location of the Nomonhan Incident, as it is termed in Japan, or the Battle of Khalkhin Gol as it is known in Russia. At this time Manchuria was a client state of Japan, known as Manchukuo. The Japanese maintained that the border between the two states was the Halha River (also known as the Halhin Gol, or in Russian as the Khalkhin Gol), while the Mongolians and their Russian allies maintained that it ran some 16 kilometres/10 miles east of the river, just east of Nomonhan village.

After the battle the Manchukuo-Mongolia Commission established a border, in an agreement signed on October 15, 1941. After the war these maps were used in the war crimes trials of Japan. China later requested the maps claiming it would not accept any border established by negotiation with the Japanese; however, the maps have disappeared and have not been located in either United States or Japanese archives. The official boundary between China and Mongolia was set in treaties in 1962 and 1964.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomonhan

Noma Seiji

Lived 1878 to 1938

Nosaka Sanzo

Born 1892.

Noto Peninsula

aka Noto-hanto (hanto being Japanese for 'half-island' and thus, peninsula in English) A peninsula in Ishikawa Prefecture (pg. X) that juts out into the Sea of Japan.

Noto Province

A province in the area that is today Ishikawa Prefecture. Noto bordered on Etchū and Kaga Provinces.

See Also

Etchū Province (pg. X), Ishikawa Prefecture (pg. X), Kaga Province (pg. X), Noto Peninsula (pg. X),

Numa Morikazu

Lived 1844 to 1890.

Nunobeyama, Battle of

Ōan – Ozu Yasujiro

Ōan

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1368--1374.

Obon

see Bon on page XX.

Obuchi Keizō

Prime Minister from 30 July 1998 to 5 April 2000. Replaced by Mori Yoshiro (pg XXX). Died of a stroke while in office, so the date above might be off by a few days.

Ōchō

Nengō: 1311--1311.

Oda Chikazane

Son of Taira Sukemori.

Took the name Oda from the town in Echizen Province.

Oda Family

Daimyō family descended from Taira Sukemori. Oda Chikazane was the first to take the name `Oda'. Originally served the Shiba family and moved with them from Echizen to Owari.

Oda Hidekatsu

Lived 1567 to 1593.

Oda Hidenobu

Lived 1581 to 1602.

Oda Hideo

aka Oda Hidekatsu.

Lived 1573 to 1610.

Oda Katsunaga

Lived 1568 to 1582.

Oda Nagamasu

Lived 1548 to 1622.

Brother of Oda Nobunaga. Converted to Christianity in 1588.

Father of Nagamasa and Toshimasa.

Accomplished practitioner of the tea ceremony, which he studied under the master, Sen no Rikyū. Nagamasa eventually started his own school of the tea ceremony (and its name is?).

Odani, Seige of

Took place in 1573.

Oda Nobunaga took Odani castle from Asai Nagamasa. Nagamasa committed suicide. This was effectively the end of the Asai family.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Asai Nagamasa (pg. X),

Oda Nobuharu

Lived 1549 to 1570.

Oda Nobuhide

Died 1549.

Oda Nobuhiro

Died 1574.

Oda Nobukane

Lived 1548 to 1614.

Oda Nobunaga

Japanese: 織田 信長

Lived 23 June 1534 to 21 June 1582.

Oda Nobunaga was a major daimyo during the Sengoku Period. The son of Oda Nobuhide, a minor warlord with meager land holdings in Owari Province, Nobunaga controlled, directly or through his allies, most of Japan before his assassination in 1582.

Impact

Militarily, Nobunaga's revolutionary dreaming not only changed the way war was fought in Japan, but also in turn made one of the most modernized forces in the world at that time. He developed, implemented, and expanded the use of long pikes, firearms, ironclad ships, and castle fortifications in accordance to the expanded mass battles of the period. Nobunaga also instituted a specialized warrior class system and appointed his retainers and subjects to positions based on ability, not simply on name, rank, or family relationship as previously had been the norm. A famous example of this is Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who was born a peasant and thus did not even have a family name.

Retainers were also given land on basis of rice output, not land size. Nobunaga's organizational system in particular was later used and extensively developed by his ally Tokugawa Ieyasu in the forming of the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo.

Nobunaga's dominance and brilliance was not restricted only to the battlefield for he also was a keen businessman and understood the principles of economics economics. First, in order to modernize the economy from an agricultural base to a manufacture and service base, castle towns were developed as the center and basis of local economies. Roads were also made within his domain between castle towns to facilitate trade and also to move armies great distances quickly. International trade was also expanded.

Nobunaga also instituted rakuichi rakuza policies as a way to stimulate business and the overall economy. These policies abolished and prohibited monopolies and opened once closed and privileged unions, associations, and guilds which he saw as prohibitive to overall commerce. He also developed tax exemptions and established laws to regulate and ease the borrowing of debt.

As Nobunaga conquered Sengoku period Japan and amassed a great amount of wealth, he progressively supported the arts for which he always had an interest, but which he later and gradually more importantly used as a display of his power and presitige. He built extensive gardens and castles which were themselves great works of art. Azuchi castle on the shores of lake Biwa is said to be the greatest castle in the history of Japan, covered with gold and statues on the outside and decorated with standing screen, sliding door, wall, and ceiling paintings made by his subject Kano Eitoku on the inside.

Nobunaga is remembered in Japan as one of the most brutal figures of the Sengoku period. He embraced the Christianity which had infiltrated Japan and used this as the moral basis for his persecution of the Ikko monks. During this time, Nobunaga's subject and tea master Sen no Rikyu established Japanese tea ceremony which Nobunaga popularized and used originally as a way to talk politics and business.

Nobunaga has been made popular through fictionalized references in video games (such as Onimusha) and anime, often villianous with monsterous help or origin as the source of his power.

Biographical Timeline

Young Nobunaga

1534 Born the second (or maybe third) son of Oda Nobuhide however is the first son not born to a concubine so is heir to the Oda clan and domain.

1539? Becomes master of Nagoya castle around the age of 5. Is separated from father and mother who raise his younger brother Oda Nobuyuki at Suemori castle, while Nobunaga is brought up alone by retainer Hirate Masahide.

1547 Nobunaga sees first, however short, military action

1549 Marries daughter of Saito Dosan, daimyo of Mino province (Gifu prefecture). It is a political marriage set up by his father and Hirate Masahide.

Unification of Owari Province

1551 Father Nobuhide dies and Nobunaga inherits domain. Becomes engaged in struggle with younger brother Nobuyuki for succession of the Oda clan and with others for total control of Owari province.

1552 Battle of Kaizu. Nobunaga defeats the rebelling Oda Nobutomo.

1553 Retainer Hirate Masahide commits seppuku out of shame for Nobunaga. Nobunaga meets father-in-law Saito Dousan for the first time.

1555 Battle of Ino. Defeats younger brother Nobuyuki and Shibata Katsuie to become undisputed head of the Oda clan.

1556 Father-in-law Saito Dousan killed in coup in Mino province.

1557 Nobuyuki again plans to overthrow Nobunaga. Nobunaga informed of the plot by Shibata Katsuie and in turn forces Nobuyuki to commit seppuku.

1558 Battle of Ukino. Defeats the Oda Nobukata, last of the rebelling relatives in Owari province.

1559 Nobunaga goes to Kyoto to announce his unification of Owari province to the 13th Muromachi shogun Ashikaga Yoshiteru.

First major campaign

1560 Battle of Okehazama. Defeats invading daimyo Imagawa Yoshimoto, ruler of the Mikawa (eastern Aichi prefecture), Suruga (western Shizuoka prefecture), and Totomi (eastern Shizuoka) provinces.

1562 Forms "Kiyosu alliance" with Matsudaira Motoyasu (later Tokugawa Ieyasu), new daimyo of Mikawa province.

Tenka Fubu

1567 Nobunaga invades and conquers Mino province. Starts to have ambitions of conquering all of Japan, calling it Tenka Fubu, "Conquer through military force".

1568 Oda Nobunaga marches his armies into Kyoto at the request of 14th Ashikaga shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki. With Kyoto conquered and Ashikaga Yoshiaki installed as a puppet shogun, the Azuchi-Momoyama period of Japanese history officially begins (overlaps with Muromachi period until 1573).

1570 Battle of Ane river (Battle of Anegawa). Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu defeat the combined forces of daimyos Asakura Yoshikage and Azai Nagamasa.

1571 Attacks and razes the Tendai warrior monk complex Enryakuji on Mt. Hiei near Kyoto.

1573 Invades and conquers Echizen and Wakasa provinces. Nobunaga drives last Muromachi shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki out of Kyoto. The Muromachi shogunate ends.

Invasion of Chugoku (Western Honshu)

1575 Battle of Nagashino. Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu defeat Takeda Katsuyori. First invasion of Tamba by general Akechi Mitsuhide.

1579 Akechi Mitsuhide invades Tanba for the 3rd time and finally conquers it. Settsu province also invaded and conquered. Mimasaka and Bizen provinces "given" to Nobunaga.

1580 Miki Castle falls after 2 year siege by Nobunaga's general Hashiba Hideyoshi. Invades and conquers Tajima. Inaba province invaded.

1581 Hashiba Hideyoshi lays siege to Tottori castle. Inaba province conquered.

1582 Hashiba Hideyoshi invades Bitchu province. Takeda clan falls under the forces of Nobunaga; Shinano, Kai, and Suruga provinces conquered. Nobunaga falls in coup (Honnoji no Hen) by retainer Akechi Mitsuhide at Honnoji Temple, Kyoto.

See Also

Suggested Reading

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oda_Nobunaga

Oda Nobuo

Lived 1558 to 1630.

Oda Nobutada

Lived 1557 to 1582.

Oda Nobutaka

Lived 1558 to 1583

Oda Nobuyuki

Died 1557.

Oda Nobuzumi

Lived 1555 to 1583.

Ōei

Nengō: 1394--1427.

Ogasawara Nagatada

Ogata Kōan

Lived 1810 to 1863.

Ogata Taketora

Lived 1888 to 1956.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Koiso

State

22 July 1944

07 Apr 1945

Higashikuni

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

17 Aug 1945

09 Oct 1945

Higashikuni

State

17 Aug 1945

09 Oct 1945

Table 91Cabinet Positions Held by Ogata Taketora

Oga Yashiro

A traitor who offered to let Takeda Katsuyori into the Tokugawa-controlled castle at Okazaki.

Ōgimachi-tennō

The 106th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1557 to 1586.

Ogyū Sorai

Lived 16 Feb. 1666 to 19 Jan. 1728.

A Confucianist of the kogaku school.

Ohara Magosaburō

Lived 28 July 1880 to 18 Jan. 1943.

Native of Okayama.

A businessman and philanthropist.

Ohara Naoshi

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Okada

Justice

08 July 1934

09 Mar 1936

Abe

Home Affairs

30 Aug 1939

16 Jan 1940

Abe

Welfare

30 Aug 1939

29 Nov 1939

Table 92Cabinet Positions Held by Ohara Naoshi

Ōhiko

A son of Kōgen-tennō (pg 184).

Ōhira Masayoshi

Lived 1910 to 1980.

Prime Minister from 7 December 1978 to 9 November 1979 and 9 November 1979 to 18 July 1980.

Ōhō

Nengō: 1161--1162.

Oi Kentaro

Lived 1843 to 1922.

Oishi Yoshi

aka Oishi Kuranosuke.

Lived 1659 to 1703.

Ōita City

The capital city of Ōita Prefecture.

Ōita Prefecture

Area: 6,337 km2 (1995)

Capital: Ōita

Population: 1,240,000 (1996)

Ōjin-tennō

The 15th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 270 to 310.

Okabe Naganori

Okada Keisuke

Lived 21 Jan 1868 to 17 Oct 1952

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Tanaka G.

Navy

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Saitō

Navy

26 May 1932

Jan 09 1933

Okada

Colonization

08 July 1934

25 Oct 1934

Okada

Prime Minister

08 July 1934

09 Mar 1936

Okada

Communications

Sep 09 1935

12 Sep 1935

Table 93Cabinet Positions Held by Okada Keisuke

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Okada Keisuke

Prime Minister

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Yamazaki Tatsunosuke

Agriculture and Forestry

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Kawada Isao

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

8 July 1934

20 Oct 1934

Yoshida Shigeru

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

20 Oct 1934

11 May 1935

Shirane Takesuke

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

11 May 1935

9 Mar 1936

Kanamori Tokujirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

8 July 1934

11 Jan 1936

Ōhashi Hachirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

11 Jan 1936

9 Mar 1936

Okada Keisuke

Colonization

8 July 1934

25 Oct 1934

Kodama Hideo

Colonization

25 Oct 1934

9 Mar 1936

Machida Chūji

Commerce and Industry

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Tokonami Takejirō

Communications

8 July 1934

8 Sep 1935

Okada Keisuke

Communications

9 Sep 1935

12 Sep 1935

Mochizuke Keisuke

Communications

12 Sep 1935

9 Mar 1936

Matsuda Genji

Education

8 July 1934

1 Feb 1936

Kawasaki Takukichi

Education

2 Feb 1936

9 Mar 1936

Fujii Sanenobu

Finance

8 July 1934

26 Nov 1934

Machida Chūji

Finance

27 Feb 1936

9 Mar 1936

Takahashi Korekiyo

Finance

27 Nov 1934

26 Feb 1936

Hirota Kōki

Foreign Affairs

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Gotō Fumio

Home Affairs

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Ohara Naoshi

Justice

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Ōsumi Mineo

Navy

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Uchida Kōsai

Railways

8 July 1934

9 Mar 1936

Hayashi Senjūrō

War

8 July 1934

5 Sep 1935

Kawashima Yoshiyuki

War

5 Sep 1935

9 Mar 1936

Table 94Okada Keisuke's Cabinet

Okada Ryōhei

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Terauchi

Education

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

1st Katō Takaaki

Education

11 June 1924

02 Aug 1925

2nd Katō Takaaki

Education

02 Aug 1925

30 Jan 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Education

30 Jan 1926

20 Apr 1927

Table 95Cabinet Positions Held by Okada Ryōhei

Okakura Tenshin

aka Okakura Kakuzo

Lived 1862 to 1913

Okano Keijirō

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Saionji

Chief of Legislative Bureau

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

2nd Saionji

Chief of Legislative Bureau

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

1st Yamamoto

Chief of Legislative Bureau

20 Feb 1913

20 Sep 1913

Katō Tomosaburō

Justice

12 June 1922

02 Sep 1923

2nd Yamamoto

Education

Sep 06 1923

07 Jan 1924

2nd Yamamoto

Agriculture & Commerce

24 Dec 1923

07 Jan 1924

Table 96Cabinet Positions Held by Okano Keijirō

Okawa Shumei

Lived 1886 to 1957.

Okayama City

The capital of Okayama Prefecture.

Okayama Prefecture

Area: 7,111 km2 (1995)

Capital: Okayama

Population: 1,950,000 (1996)



Okazaki Castle

In Mikawa. Built in the 1400s. Tokugawa Ieyasu was born there in 1542.

Okehazama, Battle of

Took place in 1560.

Oda Nobunaga defeated Imagawa Yoshimoto. Nobunaga launched a surprise attack on Yoshimoto. Thanks in part to a sudden rainstorm, the attack was a complete success. Yoshimoto and many of his top officers were killed.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Imagawa Yoshimoto (pg. X),

Ōki Enkichi

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hara

Justice

15 May 1920

13 Nov 1921

Takahashi

Justice

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Katō Tomosaburō

Railways

12 June 1922

02 Sep 1923

Table 97Cabinet Positions Held by Ōki Enkichi

Okinawa, Battle of

Okinawa Prefecture

Area: 2,266 km2 (1995)

Capital: Naha

Population: 1,290,000 (1996)

Okinawa consists of more than 50 islands of the Ryūkū chain. The islands were a semi-independent kingdom for much of their recorded history and officially became a part of Japan only in 1920.

The islands are strategically located off the southwest of the main island of Kyūshū.

The island of Okinawa (the main island of the prefecture) was the scene of an important battle in World War Two.

Okinawate, Battle of

Oki Province

A group of islands off the coast of Izumo and Hōki Provinces (today Shimane and Tottori Prefectures). Today the islands are part of Shimane Prefecture.

See Also

Hōki Province (pg. X), Izumo Province (pg. X), Shimane Prefecture (pg. X), Tottori Prefecture (pg. X),

Ōki Takatō

Lived 1832 to 1899.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Yamagata

Hanretsu

24 Dec 1889

06 May 1891

1st Yamagata

Justice

25 Dec 1890

07 Feb 1891

1st Matsukata

Education

01 June 1891

08 Aug 1892

Table 98Cabinet Positions Held by Ōki Takatō

Ōkōchi Castle

Okubo Toshimichi

Lived 1830 to 1878.

Okudaira Family

From Mikawa. Descended from the Murakami branch of the Minamoto family.

Okudaira Sadamasa

Lived 1555--1615.

The Okudaira family were originally retainers of the Tokugawa, but were forced to join Takeda Shingen. After Shingen died and Katsuyori assumed leadership of the Takeda clan, Okudaira Sadamasa walked his men right out of Tsukude castle and rejoined the Tokugawa. Katsuyori had Sadamasa's wife and brother --- hostages to the Takeda --- crucified for this.

Ieyasu accepted Sadamasa back and entrusted him with the defense of Nagashino castle.

See Also

Nagashino, Battle of (pg. X), Nagashino Castle (pg. X), Okudaira Family (pg. X), Takeda Family (pg. X), Takeda Katsuyori (pg. X), Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Tokugawa Family (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X),

Okuda Yoshindo

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

4th Itō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

19 Oct 1900

02 June 1901

1st Katsura

Chief of Legislative Bureau

02 June 1901

26 Sep 1902

1st Yamamoto

Education

20 Feb 1913

06 Mar 1914

1st Yamamoto

Justice

11 Nov 1913

16 Apr 1914

Table 99Cabinet Positions Held by Okuda Yoshindo

Okuma Kihachiro

Lived 1837 to 1928

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Lived 16 Feb 1838 to 10 Jan 1922.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Foreign Affairs

1 Feb 1888

30 Apr 1888

Kuroda

Foreign Affairs

30 Apr 1888

24 Dec 1889

2nd Matsukata

Foreign Affairs

22 Sep 1896

6 Nov 1897

2nd Matsukata

Agriculture & Commerce

29 Mar 1897

6 Nov 1897

1st Ōkuma

Prime Minister

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

1st Ōkuma

Foreign Affairs

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

2nd Ōkuma

Home Affairs

16 April 1914

7 Jan 1915

2nd Ōkuma

Prime Minister

16 April 1914

9 Oct 1916

2nd Ōkuma

Home Affairs

30 July 1915

10 Aug 1915

2nd Ōkuma

Foreign Affairs

10 Aug 1915

13 Oct 1915

Table 100Cabinet Positions Held by Ōkuma Shigenobu

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Prime Minister

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Ōishi Masami

Agriculture & Commerce

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Taketomi Tokitoshi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Kōmuchi Tomotsune

Chief of Legislative Bureau

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Hayashi Yūzō

Communications

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Ozaki Yukio

Education

30 June 1898

27 Oct 1898

Matsuda Masahisa

Finance

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Foreign Affairs

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Itagaki Taisuke

Home Affairs

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Daitō Gitetsu

Justice

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Saigō Tsugumichi

Navy

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Katsura Tarō

War

30 June 1898

8 Nov 1898

Table 101Ōkuma Shigenobu's First Cabinet

Ōkuma Shigenobu's Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Prime Minister

16 April 1914

9 Oct 1916

Ōura Kanetake

Agriculture & Commerce

16 April 1914

7 Jan 1915

Oka Ichinosuke

Army

16 April 1914

30 Mar 1916

Egi Tasuku

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

16 April 1914

9 Oct 1916

Takahashi Sakue

Chief of Legislative Bureau

16 April 1914

9 Oct 1916

Taketomi Tokitoshi

Communications

16 April 1914

10 Aug 1915

Ichiki Kitokurō

Education

16 April 1914

10 Aug 1915

Wakatsuki Reijirō

Finance

16 April 1914

10 Aug 1915

Katō Takaaki

Foreign Affairs

16 April 1914

10 Aug 1915

Ōkuma Shigenobu

Home Affairs

16 April 1914

7 Jan 1915

Ozaki Yukio

Justice

16 April 1914

9 Oct 1916

Yasuhiro Rokurō

Navy

16 April 1914

10 Aug 1915

Table 102Ōkuma Shigenobu's Second Cabinet

Ōmi Province

A province in the area that is today Shiga Prefecture. Ōmi bordered on Echizen, Ise, Mino, Tamba (just barely), Wakasa, and Yamashiro Provinces.

Domains

Ōtsu (60,000 koku): Kyōgoku Takatsugu received from Toyotomi

Hideyoshi (what year?).

See Also

Echizen Province (pg. X), Ise Province (pg. X), Kyōgoku Takatsugu (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X), Shiga Prefecture (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Wakasa Province (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X),

Omote-kōke

Omura Masajiro

Lived 1824 to 1869.

Ōnin

Nengō: 1467--1468.

Ōnin War

Ōnin no ran in Japanese.

Ono Azusa

Lived 1852 to 1886.

Onogawa

A river in Bungo Province.

Ōsaka Castle

Japanese: 大坂城 (Ōsaka-jō)

Ōsaka Castle is a located in Chuo-ku, Ōsaka. Originally called Ozakajo, it is one of Japan's most famous castles, and played a major role in the unification of Japan during the 1500's.

The castle is situated on a plot of land roughly one kilometer square. It is built on two raised platforms of landfill supported by sheer walls of cut rock, each overlooking a moat. The central castle building is five stories on the outside and eight stories on the inside, and built atop a tall stone foundation to protect its occupants from sword-bearing attackers.

History

1583: Toyotomi Hideyoshi commenced construction on the site of the Ikko Ikki temple of Honganji. The basic plan was modeled after Azuchi Castle, the headquarters of Oda Nobunaga. Toyotomi wanted to build a castle that mirrored Oda's, but surpassed it in every way: the plan featured a five-story main tower, with three extra stories underground, and gold leaf on the sides of the tower to impress visitors.

1585: Inner donjon completed. Toyotomi continued to extend and expand the castle, making it more and more formidable to attackers.

1598: Construction completed. Hideyoshi died. Osaka Castle passed to his son, Toyotomi Hideyori.

1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu defeated Hideyori's armies at the Battle of Sekigahara, and started his own bakufu in Edo.

1614: Tokugawa attacked Hideyori in the winter. Although the Toyotomi forces were outnumbered 2 to 1, they managed to fight off Tokugawa's 200,000-man army and protect the castle's outer walls. However, Tokugawa attempted to muzzle Toyotomi by filling up the castle's outer moat, rendering it largely defenseless.

1615: During the summer, Hideyori began to dig the outer moat once more. Tokugawa, in outrage, sent his armies to Osaka Castle again, and routed the Toyotomi men inside the outer walls on June 4. Osakajo fell to Tokugawa, and the Toyotomi clan perished.

1620: The new heir to the shogunate, Tokugawa Hidetada, began to reconstruct and rearm Osaka Castle. He built a new elevated main tower, five stories on the outside and eight stories on the inside, and assigned the task of constructing new walls to individual samurai clans. The walls built in the 1620's still stand today, and are made out of interlocked granite boulders with no mortar whatsoever: they are held together solely by each other. Many of the stones were brought from rock quarries in the Seto Inland Sea, and bear inscribed crests of the various families who laid them into the walls.

1665: Lightning strikes burned down the main tower.

1843: After decades of neglect, the castle got much-needed repairs when the bakufu collected money from the people of the region to rebuild several of the turrets.

1868: Much of the castle was burned in the civil conflicts surrounding the Meiji Restoration. Under the Meiji government, Osaka Castle was converted to a barracks for Japan's rapidly-expanding Western-style military.

1928: The main tower was restored after the mayor of Osaka concluded a highly successful fund-raising drive.

1945: Bombing raids on Osaka damaged the reconstructed main tower.

1995: Osaka's government approved yet another restoration project, with the intent of restoring the main tower to its Edo-era splendor.

1997: Restoration was completed.

Today

The castle is open to the public, and is easily accessible from Osakajo Koen Station on the JR Osaka Loop Line. It is a popular spot during festival seasons, and especially during the cherry blossom viewing season, when the sprawling castle grounds are covered with food vendors and taiko drummers.

The grounds also house a museum, a convention hall, and the Toyokuni Shrine dedicated to Toyotomi Hideyoshi.

See Also

Suggested Reading

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka_Castle

Ōsaka City

The capital of Ōsaka Prefecture.

Ōsaka Prefecture

A fu and not a ken.

Area: 1,892 km2 (1995)

Capital: Ōsaka

Population: 8,590,000 (1996)

Ōsaka, Seige of

Lasted 1614-1615.

Toyotomi Hideyori was in Ōsaka Castle with 113,000 men. Outside, the Tokugawa army numbered about 194,000 men. They fought several battles, starting with one in 1614 at the mouth of the Kizugawa, and ending when Hideyori's forces attacked those of the Tokugawa at the Battle of Tennōji, in 1615.

See Also

Toyotomi Hideyori (pg. X), Ōsaka Castle (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Kizugawa, Battle of (pg. X), Tennōji, Battle of (pg. X)

Ōsawa Family

Ōsugi Sakae

Lived 1885 to 1923.

Anarchist. Killed after the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923.

Had a relationship with Itō Noe.

See Also

Anarchism (pg. 24)

Great Kanto Earthquake (pg. 116), Itō Noe (pg. 152),

Ōsumi Province

A province in the area that is today Kagoshima Prefecture. Ōsumi bordered on Hyūga and Satsuma Provinces.

See Also

Hyūga Province (pg. X), Kagoshima Prefecture (pg. X), Satsuma Province (pg. X)

Ōtoku

Nengō: 1084--1086.

Ōtomo Family

Ōtsu City

The capital of Shiga Prefecture (pg XX).

Ōtsu, Seige of

Took place in 1600.

Kyōgoku Takatsugu defended Ōtsu castle for the Tokugawa. Tachibana Muneshige and Tsukushi Hirokado laid seige. The sides negotiated and Takatsugu surrendered. However, in the meantime Tokugawa Ieyasu had won the Battle of Sekigahara and the loss of Ōtsu was insignificant.

See Also

Kyōgoku Takatsugu (pg. X), Tachibana Muneshige (pg. X), Tsukushi Hirokado (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X),

Ōuchi Yoshitaka

Ōura Kanetake

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katsura

Communications

22 Sep 1903

07 Jan 1906

2nd Katsura

Agriculture & Commerce

14 July 1908

26 Mar 1910

2nd Katsura

Agriculture & Commerce

03 Sep 1910

30 Aug 1911

3rd Katsura

Home Affairs

21 Dec 1912

20 Feb 1913

2nd Ōkuma

Agriculture & Commerce

16 Apr 1914

07 Jan 1915

2nd Ōkuma

Home Affairs

07 Jan 1915

30 July 1915

Table 103Cabinet Positions Held by Ōura Kanetake

Owari Province

A province in the area that is today Aichi Prefecture. Owari bordered on Ise, Mikawa, and Mino Provinces.

See Also

Aichi Prefecture (pg. X), Ise Province (pg. X), Mikawa Province (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X),

Ōwa

Nengō: 961--963.

Oyama Ikuo

Lived 1880 to 1955.

Ōyama Iwao

Lived 1842 to 1916

Cabinet Positions Held by Ōyama Iwao

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

War

22 Dec 1885

30 Apr 1888

1st Itō

Navy

July 10 1886

July 01 1887

Kurota

War

30 Apr 1888

24 Dec 1889

Kurota

Education

Feb 16 1889

22 Mar 1889

1st Yamagata

War

24 Dec 1889

06 May 1891

1st Matsukata

War

06 May 1891

17 May 1891

2nd Itō

War

08 Aug 1892

09 Oct 1894

2nd Itō

War

26 May 1895

18 Sep 1896

2nd Matsukata

War

18 Sep 1896

20 Sep 1895

Table 104Cabinet Positions Held by Ōyama Iwao

Oyama-jinja

A shrine in Kanazawa, Ishikawa Prefecture. It is famous for its Dutch stained-glass window, which dates back several hundred years.

See Also

Kanazawa City (pg. X), Ishikawa Prefecture (pg. X),

Oyatoi Gaikokujin

Japanese: お雇い外国人

Foreign engineers, teachers, and other specialists hired to assist in the modernization of Japan. The term is often used to refer to those foreign specialists employed by the Japanese government. The first were hired during the Bakumatsu period and many more came during the early Meiji period. The goal was to transfer technical know-how to Japanese students and also teach their own Japanese replacements.

They were highly paid; in 1874 the oyatoi numbered 520, during which time their salaries came to 2.272 million yen, or 33.7 percent of the annual budget. Despite their value, they were not allowed to stay in Japan permanently, and many, finding the nation unwelcoming, chose to leave at the end of a one or two year contact. The oyatoi system was terminated in 1899, during which time over 800 hired experts were employed by the government, and many others privately.

The situation around the JET Program is similar in many ways to that of the oyatoi system - young people brought to Japan for a short time to transfer some of their knowledge and paid a handsome wage.

Notable Oyatoi Gaikokujin



Name

Specialty

From

To

Notes

William Griffis


1870

1874

American clergymen, author

Heinrich Edmund Naumann

geologist

August 1875


Arrived at the age of 21. Teaching in the University of Tokyo, he became the first professor of geology in Japan. His achievements include, among others, the first tectonic map of the country.

Thomas Corwin Mendenhall

physicist.



American

Edward S. Morse

zoologist




Charles Otis Whitman

zoologist



successor of Edward S. Morse

Guido F.Verbeck





Gustave Emille Boissonade





Herman Roesler





Gottfried Wagener





Henry Dyer





Ernest Fenollosa

educator




Sir James Alfred Ewing

physicist and engineer



Scottish. Founded Japanese seismology.

Jules Brunet

artillery officer.



French

Léonce Verny




French constructor of the Yokosuka arsenal

Basil Hall Chamberlain

Japanologist



Professor of Japanese, Tokyo Imperial University

Table 105 Notable Hired Foreigners

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-yatoi_gaikokujin

Ozaki Hotsumi

Lived 1901 to 1944.

Ozaki Yukio

Lived 1859 to 1954.

Ozu Yasujiro

Lived 1903 to 1963.

Pacific War – Privy Council

Pacific War

The Pacific War, which is known in Japan as the Greater East Asia War and in China as the “War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression” (kang-Ri zhanzheng, literally “Resist Japan War”), occurred in the Pacific Ocean, its islands, and in Asia. The conflict took place between 1937 and 1945. However, the most decisive actions took place after December 7, 1941, when Japan attacked the United States as well as territories controlled by the United Kingdom and many other countries.

The war both preceded World War II and also included some of its major campaigns and events. It was fought between Japan on one side and the Allied powers, including China, the United States, the United Kingdom (including British India), the Philippines, Australia, the Netherlands and New Zealand on the other. The Soviet Union repulsed its Japanese attackers in 1939, then remained neutral until 1945, when it played an important role on the Allied side in the closing weeks of the war.

Thailand, after being invaded in 1941, was coerced into joining the Japanese side. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were also allies of Japan, and their naval forces operated in the Pacific and the Indian Ocean between 1940 and 1945.

Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main Allied theaters / commands in the war against Japan: China, the Pacific Ocean Areas, the South East Asia Command and the South West Pacific Area. US sources often refer to two major theaters within the Pacific War: the Pacific Theater and the South-East Asian Theater. However, for most of the war, the US military divided operational control of its forces between the commanders of the Pacific Ocean Areas, the South West Pacific Area, and the China Burma India Theater (CBI). (US forces in the CBI were technically under the operational command of either the Allied South East Asia Command or that of China's generalissimo, Chiang Kai Shek.) US strategic bomber forces in the Pacific reported directly to the US Joint Chiefs of Staff. For brief periods in both 1939 and 1945, there was another theater: Mongolia and north-east China, where Soviet forces also engaged Japan.

Conflict Between Japan And China

The roots of the war began in the late 19th century with China in political chaos and Japan rapidly modernizing. Over the course of the late 19th century and early 20th century, Japan intervened and finally annexed Korea and expanded its political and economic influence into China, particularly Manchuria. This expansion of power was aided by the fact that by the 1920s, China had fragmented into warlordism with only a weak and ineffective central government.

However, the situation of a weak China unable to resist Japanese demands appeared to be changing toward the end of the 1920s. In 1927, Chiang Kai-Shek and the National Revolutionary Army of the Kuomintang led the Northern Expedition. Chiang was able to defeat the warlords in southern and central China, and was in the process of securing the nominal allegiance of the warlords in northern China. Fearing that Zhang Xueliang (the warlord controlling Manchuria) was about to declare his allegiance for Chiang, the Japanese staged the Mukden Incident and set up the puppet state of Manchukuo. The nominal Emperor of this puppet state is better known as Henry Pu Yi of the Qing Dynasty.

There is no evidence that Japan ever intended to directly administer China or that Japan's actions in China were part of a program of world domination. Rather, Japan's goals in China (strongly influenced by 19th century European colonialism) were to maintain a secure supply of natural resources and to have friendly and pliable governments in China that would not act against Japanese interests. Although Japanese actions would not have seemed out of place among European colonial powers in the 19th century, by 1930, notions of Wilsonian self-determination meant that raw military force in support of colonialism was no longer seen as appropriate behavior by the international community.

Hence, Japanese actions in Manchuria were roundly criticized and led to Japan's withdrawal from the League of Nations. During the 1930s, China and Japan reached a stalemate with Chiang focusing his efforts at eliminating the Communists, whom he considered to be a more fundamental danger than the Japanese. The influence of Chinese nationalism on opinion both in the political elite and the general population rendered this strategy increasingly untenable.

Meanwhile, in Japan, a policy of assassination by secret societies and the effects of the Great Depression had caused the civilian government to lose control of the military. In addition, the military high command had limited control over the field armies who acted in their own interest, often in contradiction to the overall national interest. There was also an upsurge in Japanese nationalism and anti-European feeling, including the development of a belief that Japanese policies in China could be justified by racial theories. One popular idea with similarities to the Identity movement was that Japan and not China was the true heir of classical Chinese civilization.

The Sino-Japanese War

(See the full entry on The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) on page XX.)

In 1937, Chiang was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang in the Xian Incident. As condition of his release, Chiang promised to unite with the Communists and fight the Japanese. In response to this, officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army, without the knowledge of their high command in Tokyo, manufactured the Battle of Lugou Bridge (also known as the “Marco Polo Bridge Incident”) on July 8, 1937, which succeeded in provoking a conflict between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan – the Sino-Japanese War.

In 1939 Japanese forces tried to push into the Soviet Far East from Manchuria. They were soundly defeated in the Battle of Halhin Gol by a mixed Soviet and Mongolian force led by Georgy Zhukov. This stopped Japanese expansion to the North and Japan and the Soviet Union kept uneasy peace until 1945.

Japan's policies in the 1930s are remarkable for their disastrously self-defeating nature. Japan's grand strategy was based on the premise that it could not survive a war against the European powers without secure sources of natural resources, yet to secure those resources it decided to undertake the war that it knew it could not win in the first place. Moreover, Japanese actions such as its brutality in China, and its practice of first setting up, and then undermining, puppet governments in China, were clearly antithetical to Japan's overall goals, and yet the country continued to persist in them anyway. Finally, this march to self-destruction is remarkable in that many individuals within the Japanese political and military elite realized these self-destructive consequences, but were unable to do anything about the situation. Also, there appears to have been no debate over policy alternatives which might have enabled Japan to further its goals in China.

In addition, throughout the 1930s Japan succeeded in alienating public opinion in the West, particularly the United States. During the early 1930s, public opinion in the United States had been moderately pro-Japanese; however, reports of Japanese brutality, such as the Nanjing Massacre, written by Protestant missionaries, novelists such as Pearl Buck, and Time Magazine reporters, caused American public opinion to swing against Japan, as did events such as the Panay Incident.

War Spreads In The East

By 1941, Japan was in a stalemate in China. Although, Japan had occupied much of north and central China, the Kuomintang had retreated to the interior setting up a provisional capital at Chongqing while the Communist Party of China remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. In addition, Japanese control of north and central China was somewhat tenuous, in that Japan was usually able to control railroads and the major cities, but did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside.

Japan sponsored several puppet governments, one of which was headed by Wang Jingwei. However, its policies of brutality toward the Chinese population, of not yielding any real power to the governments, and of support to several competing governments failed to make any of them a popular alternative to the Chiang government. Japan was also unwilling to negotiate directly with Chiang, nor was it willing to attempt to create splits in united front against it, by offering concessions that would make it a more attractive alternative than Chiang's government to the former warlords in Chiang's government. Although Japan was deeply mired in a quagmire, Japan's reaction to its situation was to turn to increasingly more brutal and depraved actions in the hope that sheer terror would break the will of the Chinese population.

This, however, only had the effect of turning world public opinion against it. In an effort to discourage Japan's war efforts in China, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the government in exile of the Netherlands (still in control of the oil-rich Dutch East Indies) stopped trading oil and steel (both war staples) with Japan. Japan saw this as an act of aggression, as without these resources Japan's military machine would grind to a halt. On December 8, 1941, Japanese forces attacked the British crown colony of Hong Kong, the International Settlement in Shanghai, the Philippines (a United States commonwealth); Japan also used Vichy French bases in French Indochina to invade Thailand and Malaya. At the same time (technically on December 7, due to the difference in time zones), Japanese carrier-based planes launched a massive air attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. Among many other losses in that attack, more than 2,400 people were killed and 3 battleships and 2 destroyers were sunk. America's aircraft carriers survived only because they were not in port that day.

Japan knew that it could not win a prolonged war against the United States. The leaders' plan was similar to that of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 – win big in the beginning and then negotiate peace from an advantageous position. Without a navy to fight with, the Japanese hoped that the United States would be unable to interfere while Japan secured its gains and prepared for the American counter-attack. Faced with the challenge of knocking the Japanese out of entrenched positions in the Pacific and Southeast Asia, the Americans might agree to a negotiated settlement. The plan was undermined from the start by the timing of the attack on Pearl Harbor – whether it was accident or intentional, by attacking American territory before officially declaring war, the Japanese increased the emotional impact of the attack on the American population and made a negotiated settlement that much less likely.

The United States Enters The War

Until the attack on Pearl Harbor, the US had remained out of the Asian and European conflict. The America First Committee, 800,000 members strong, had until that day vehemently opposed any American intervention in the foreign conflict, even as America provided military aid to Britain and Soviet Union through the Lend-Lease program. Opposition to war in the United States vanished after the attack. Four days after Pearl Harbor, on December 11, Nazi Germany declared war on the United States, drawing America into a two-theater war. The United States, recognising that Germany had a significant industrial output, quickly decided on a “Germany first” strategy. In 1941, Japan had only a fraction of the manufacturing capacity of the United States, and was therefore perceived as lesser threat than Germany.

British, Indian, Dutch and Australian forces, already drained of personnel and materiel by two years of war with Nazi Germany, and heavily committed in the Middle East, North Africa and elsewhere, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle-hardened Japanese. The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. Two major British warships, HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on December 10, 1941. The government of Thailand formally allied itself with Japan on December 21. Hong Kong fell on December 25 and US bases on Guam and Wake Island were lost at around the same time.

Following the Declaration by the United Nations on January 1, 1942, the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell as supreme commander of all “American-British-Dutch-Australian” (ABDA) forces in South East Asia. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge, but thinly-spread force, covering an area from Burma to the Dutch East Indies and the Philippines. (Other areas, including India, Australia and Hawaii remained under separate, local commands.) On January 15, Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDA Command (ABDACOM).

January saw the invasions of Burma, the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the capture of Manila, Kuala Lumpur and Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore surrendered to the Japanese on February 15, 1942; about 130,000[1] Indian, Australian and British troops became prisoners of war. The pace of conquest was rapid: Bali and Timor also fell in February. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance had left the “ABDA area” split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on February 25, handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returing to the post of Commander-in-Chief, India.

At the Battle of the Java Sea, in late February and early March, the Japanese Navy inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman. Allied commanders in Java surrendered.

The British under intense pressure made a fighting retreat from Rangoon to the Indo-Burmese border. This cut the Burma Road which was the western Allies' supply line to the Chinese National army commanded by Chiang Kai-shek. Filipino and US forces put up a fierce resistance in the Philippines until May 8, 1942 when more than 80,000 of them surrendered. By this time, General Douglas MacArthur, who had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific, had relocated his headquarters to Australia. The US Navy, under Admiral Chester Nimitz, had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean.

Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in South-East Asia and were making attacks on northern Australia, beginning with a disproportionately large, and psychologically devastating attack on the city of Darwin on February 19, which killed at least 243 people. Japanese air power had also driven the British fleet out of Ceylon. (Air attacks on the US mainland were insignificant, comprising balloon-based materials and a submarine-based seaplane fire-bombing a forest in Oregon, September 9, 1942.)

The Allies Re-Group

In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia-Pacific war council, based in Washington D.C.. A council was established in London, with a subsidiary body in Washington. However the smaller powers continued to push for a US-based body. The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington on April 1, 1942, with a membership consisting of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, his key advisor Harry Hopkins, and representatives from Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Canada. Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control and any decisions it made were referred to the US-British Combined Chiefs of Staff, which was also in Washington.

Allied resistance, at first shambolic, gradually began to stiffen. The Doolittle Raid in April was a token, but morale-boosting, air attack on Japan, and although the Allied navies were narrowly defeated in tactical terms at the Battle of the Coral Sea, it still managed to derail a Japanese naval attack on Port Moresby, New Guinea. The crucial Battle of Midway followed in June: the fortunes of war could easily have given either side the victory, but Japanese naval aviation suffered a devastating defeat from which it never recovered. Midway was the turning-point of the naval war in the Pacific theatre.

Nevertheless, Japanese land forces continued to advance. A few Australian Militia (reserve) battalions, many of them of very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action in New Guinea, against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track, towards Port Moresby, over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges. The Militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force, returning from action in the Middle East.

The Tide Turns

In early September 1942, at Milne Bay, near the eastern tip of New Guinea, Japan suffered its first outright defeat since 1939. Japanese marines attacked a strategic Royal Australian Air Force base, defended mostly by the Australian Army, as well as some US forces. Simultaneously, US and Japanese forces were both attempting to occupy the island of Guadalcanal. Both sides poured resources into Guadalcanal over the following six months, in an escalating battle of attrition, with eventual victory going to the United States. From this time on the Japanese forces were decidedly on the defensive. The constant need to reinforce Guadalcanal weakened the Japanese effort in other theatres, leading to successful Australian-US counteroffensives in New Guinea, which culminated in the capture of the key bases of Buna and Gona in early 1943. In June, the Allies launched Operation Cartwheel, which initiated a strategy of isolating the major Japanese forward base, at Rabaul, and concentrated on cutting its lines of communication. This prepared the way for Nimitz's island-hopping campaign towards Japan.

In late 1942 and during 1943, British, Indian and African colonial forces were counter-attacking in Burma, albeit with limited success. In August 1943 the western Allies formed a new South East Asian Command to take over stratigic responsibilities for the theatre from general Wavell the Commander-in-Chief, India. The reorganisation of the theatre command took about two months and in October 1943 Winston Churchill appointed Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten as Supreme Allied Commander of the South East Asia Command (SEAC). Working closely with General William Slim Mountbatten directed the liberation of Burma and Singapore in the Burma Campaign. General Stilwell in the CBI under SEAC, supplied aid to the Chinese forces of Chiang Kai-shek and helped to co-ordinate the Chinese attacks on the Japanese which supported the British Fourteenth Army in Burma.

On November 22, 1943 U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and ROC leader Chiang Kai-Shek met in Cairo, Egypt, to discuss ways to defeat Japan.

The Final Stages Of The War

Hard-fought battles at Tarawa, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, but finally produced a Japanese retreat. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese resorted to kamikaze tactics in an attempt to slow the US advance.

Towards the end of the war as the role of strategic bombing became more important, a new command for the U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific was created to oversee all US strategic bombing in the hemisphere, under USAAF General Carl Spaatz. Japanese cities suffered greatly from air attacks by US bombers. On March 9-10 1945 alone, about 100,000 people were killed in a fire storm caused by an attack on Tokyo.

On February 3, 1945, Japan's long-time enemy the Soviet Union agreed in principle to enter the Pacific conflict. Its declaration of war did not occur until August 8, which was 3 months to the day from the end of the war in Europe so fulfilling the USSR's obligation to the other Allies. In a devastating blow to Japanese morale, the US attacked two cities with nuclear weapons; these were a well-kept secret until August 6, when Hiroshima was destroyed with a single atomic bomb, as was Nagasaki on August 9. More than 200,000 people died as a direct result of these two bombings.

On August 9 the Soviet Union entered the war with Japan by launching Operation August Storm. A battle-hardened, one million-strong Soviet force, transferred from Europe, attacked Japanese forces in Manchuria and quickly defeated their Kwantung Army (Guandong Army). The Soviet attack worried Emperor Hirohito, who told the war council to reconsider surrender.

In Japan, August 14 is considered to be the day that the Pacific War ended. However, Imperial Japan actually surrendered on August 15 and this day became known in the English-speaking countries as “V-J Day” (Victory in Japan). The order to surrender was not immediately sent to Japanese forces in Manchuria, who continued to fight the Soviets until August 19. Small-scale combat continued to occur throughout the Pacific, in some cases for many years.[2] The formal Instrument of Surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, on the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Allied Commander, with representatives of each Allied nation, from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu.

Following this period, MacArthur established bases in Japan to oversee the postwar development of the country. This period in Japanese history is known as the occupation. U.S. President Harry Truman officially proclaimed an end of hostilities on December 31, 1946.

Timelines

Japanese Conquest of Southeast Asia

From

To

Event

1941-12-07(12-08 Asian Time)

1941-12-07

Attack on Pearl Harbor

1941-12-08

1941-12-08

Japanese invasion of Thailand

1941-12-08

1941-12-25

Battle of Hong Kong

1941-12-10


Sinking of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse

1941-12-11

1941-12-24

Battle of Wake Island

1941-12-22

1942-05-06

Battle of the Philippines

1942-01-11

1942-01-12

Battle of Tarakan

1942-01-23


Battle of Rabaul (1942)

1942-01-24


Naval Battle of Balikpapan

1942-01-25


Thailand declares war on the Allies

1942-01-30

1942-02-03

Battle of Ambon

1942-01-30

1942-02-15

Siege of Singapore

1942-02-02


Japanese invasion of Java

1942-02-04


Battle of Makassar Strait

1942-02-14

1942-02-15

Battle of Palembang

1942-02-19


Air raids on Darwin

1942-02-19

1942-02-20

Battle of Badung Strait

1942-02-19

1943-02-10

Battle of Timor (1942-43)

1942-02-24

1942-03-08

Battle of Java

1942-02-27

1942-03-01

Battle of the Java Sea

1942-03-01


Battle of Sunda Strait

1942-03-31

1942-04-10

Indian Ocean raid

1942-04-09


Bataan Death March begins

1942-04-18


Doolittle Raid

1942-05-03


Japanese invasion of Tulagi

1942-05-04

1942-05-08

Battle of the Coral Sea

1942-06-04

1942-06-06

Battle of Midway

Burma Campaign
New Guinea campaign

1942-01-23 Battle of Rabaul

1942-03-07 Japanese invasion of mainland New Guinea

1942-05-04 - 1942-05-08 Battle of the Coral Sea

1942-07-01 - 1943-01-31 Kokoda Track

1942-08-25 - 1942-09-05 Battle of Milne Bay

1942-11-19 - 1942-01-23 Battle of Buna-Gona

1943-03-02 - 1943-03-04 Battle of the Bismarck Sea

1943-09-04 - 1943-09-16 Battle of Lae

1943-11-05 Attack on Rabaul

1943-1945 Final stages of the New Guinea campaign

Aleutian Islands campaign

1942-06-06 - 1943-08-15 Battle of the Aleutian Islands

1943-03-26 Battle of the Komandorski Islands

Guadalcanal campaign

1942-08-07 - 1943-02-09 Battle of Guadalcanal

1942-08-09 Battle of Savo Island

1942-08-24 - 1942-08-25 Battle of the Eastern Solomons

1942-10-11 - 1942-10-12 Battle of Cape Esperance

1942-10-25 - 1942-10-27 Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands

1942-11-13 - 1942-11-15 Naval Battle of Guadalcanal

1942-11-30 Battle of Tassafaronga

Solomon Islands campaign

1943-01-29 - 1943-01-30 Battle of Rennell Island

1943-03-06 Battle of Blackett Strait

1943-06-10 - 1943-08-25 Battle of New Georgia

1943-07-06 Battle of Kula Gulf

1943-07-12 - 1943-07-13 Battle of Kolombangara

1943-08-06 - 1943-08-07 Battle of Vella Gulf

1943-08-17 - 1943-08-18 Battle off Horaniu

1943-10-07 Battle of Vella Lavella

1943-11-01 - 1944-11-01 Battle of Bougainville

1943-11-01 - 1943-11-02 Battle of Empress Augusta Bay

1943-11-26 Battle of Cape St. George

Gilbert Islands campaign

1943-11-20 - 1943-11-23 Battle of Tarawa

1943-11-20 - 1943-11-24 Battle of Makin

Marshall Islands campaign

1944-01-31 - 1944-02-07 Battle of Kwajalein

1944-02-16 - 1944-02-17 Attack on Truk

1944-02-16 - 1944-02-23 Battle of Eniwetok

Mariana Islands campaign

1944-06-15 - 1944-07-09 Battle of Saipan

1944-06-19 - 1944-06-20 Battle of the Philippine Sea

1944-07-21 - 1944-08-10 Battle of Guam

1944-07-24 - 1944-08-01 Battle of Tinian

Palau Islands campaign

1944-09-15 - 1944-11-25 Battle of Peleliu

1944-09-17 - 1944-09-30 Battle of Angaur

Philippines campaign

1944-10-20 - 1944-12-10 Battle of Leyte

1944-10-24 - 1944-10-25 Battle of Leyte Gulf

1944-11-11 First Battle of Ormoc Bay

1944-12-03 Second Battle of Ormoc Bay

1944-12-15 - 1945-07-04 Battle of Luzon

1945-02-27 - 1945-07-04 Southern Philippines campaign

Ryukyu Islands campaign

1945-02-16 - 1945-03-26 Battle of Iwo Jima

1945-04-01 - 1945-06-21 Battle of Okinawa

1945-04-07 Operation Ten-Go

Borneo campaign

1945-05-01 - 1945-05-25 Battle of Tarakan

1945-06-10 - 1945-06-15 Battle of Brunei

1945-06-10 - 1945-06-22 Battle of Labuan

1945-06-17 - 1945-08-15 Battle of North Borneo

1945-07-07 - 1945-07-21 Battle of Balikpapan

Japan campaign

1945-07-22 Battle of Tokyo Bay

1945-08-06 - 1945-08-09 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Related articles

* Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal

* Operation Downfall

* Pacific Theater of Operations

* Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)

* South-East Asian Theatre

* Timeline WW II - Pacific Theater

* Fire balloon

Categories: World War II Pacific Theatre | World War II Southeast Asia Theatre | World War II East Asian Theatre

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War

Parkes, Harry

Lived 1828 to 1885.

British Diplomat

Arrived in Japan in 1865. Was friendly toward the Bakufu's rivals and had some influence in the Meiji government as a result. Parkes worked in Japan until 1883, when he was posted to China.

Peace Preservation Law

Japanese: 治安維持法 (Chian-ijihō)

The Peace Preservation Law was a Japanese law passed in 1925 as a mechanism for the royal family to entrench itself against a growing left wing. It forbade conspiracy or revolt against the kokutai (“national essence”) of Japan, and effectively criminalized socialism, communism, and other ideologies that would threaten Japan's emperor-centered social order.

In 1920, a Tokyo Imperial University professor named Morito Tatsuo was prosecuted for publishing an article critical of Peter Kropotkin, and spent three months in jail on charges of treason. His case set a precedent in Japanese law that effectively criminalized the discussion of ideas, and the government's clampdown on dissent only intensified after the 1921 assassination of prime minister Hara Takashi. The Peace Preservation Law was therefore only a legislative embodiment of a legal superstructure that had already existed.

Japanese police that arrested more than 50,000 citizens over the next two decades, driving the Japan Communist Party and the Korean Communist Party underground. The Special Higher Police were responsible for monitoring films and political campaigns, while military police watched affairs on the ground. This system remained in effect until the new Police Law was passed in 1947 under the eye of the American occupation of Japan. By then, the Peace Preservation Law had become unconstitutional under the new Japanese constitution.

Categories: Showa period | Japanese law | 1925 in law

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_Preservation_Law



Pearl Harbor, Bombing of

Occurred 7 Dec. 1941 American time (8 Dec. Japan time).

Perry, Matthew Calbraith

Lived 10 April 1794 to 4 March 1858.

Is credited by Americans and some others with opening Japan to the world and thereby ending the Japanese period of national isolation known as sakoku.

Matthew Calbraith (often misspelled as Galbraith) Perry was the Commodore of the U.S. Navy who, using the threat of military force, “opened” Japan. “Opening” means forcing the Japanese government to interact with other governments along the lines of the Western system of treaties, ambassadors, embassies, and the like. It was formalized with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.

Early Life and Naval Career

Born in South Kingstown, Rhode Island, he was the younger brother of Oliver Hazard Perry. Matthew Perry obtained a midshipman's commission in the Navy in 1809, and was initially assigned to USS Revenge, which was under the command of his elder brother.

Perry's early career saw him assigned to several different ships, including the President, where he was aide to Commodore John Rodgers, which was in a victorious engagement over a British vessel, HMS Little Belt, shortly before the War of 1812 was officially declared. During that war Perry was transferred to USS United States, and consequently saw little fighting in that war afterward since the ship was trapped at New London, Connecticut. After the war he served on various vessels in the Mediterranean and Africa (notably aboard USS Cyane during its patrol off Liberia in 1819-1820), sent to suppress piracy and the slave trade in the West indies. Later during this period, while in port in Russia, Perry was offered a commission in the Russian navy, which he declined.

Command Assignments, 1820s-1840s

Perry commanded USS Shark from 1821-1825, and from 1826-1827 acted as fleet captain for Commodore Rodgers. Perry returned for shore duty to Charleston, South Carolina in 1828, and in 1830 took command of USS Concord. He spent the years of 1833-1837 as second officer of the New York Navy Yard (later the Brooklyn Navy Yard), gaining promotion to captain at the end of this tour.

Support for Naval Education and Modernization

Perry had a considerable interest in naval education, supporting an apprentice system to train new seamen, and helped establish the curriculum for the United States Naval Academy. Additionally, he was a vocal proponent of modernization of the Navy. Once promoted to captain, he oversaw construction of the Navy's second steam frigate, USS Fulton, which he commanded after its completion. He organized America's first corps of naval engineers, and conducted the first U.S. naval gunnery school while commanding Fulton in 1839-1840 off Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey.

Promotion to Commodore

Perry acquired the courtesy title of commodore in 1841, and was made chief of the New York Navy Yard in the same year. In 1843 he took command of the African Squadron, whose duty was to interdict the slave trade under the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, and continued in this endeavor through 1844.

The Mexican-American War

During the Mexican-American War Perry was in charge of the Gulf Fleet, and commanded the force that captured Frontera, Tabasco and Laguna in 1846. In 1847 the forces under Perry's command supported the siege of Veracruz.

The "Opening of Japan": 1852-1854

First Visit, 1852-1853

In 1852, Perry embarked from Norfolk, Virginia for Japan, in command of a squadron in search of a Japanese trade treaty. Aboard a black-hulled steam frigate, he ported four ships at Uraga Harbor near Edo (modern Tokyo) on July 8, 1853, and was met by representatives of the Tokugawa Shogunate who told him to proceed to Nagasaki, where there was limited trade with the Netherlands and which was the only Japanese port open to foreigners at that time. Perry refused to leave and demanded permission to present a letter from President Millard Fillmore, threatening force if he was denied. Japan had been living reclusely apart from modern technology, and the Japanese military forces could not resist Perry's modern weaponry; the "black ships" would then become, in Japan, a symbol of threatening Western technology and colonialism.

The Japanese government, so as to avoid naval bombardment, had to accept Perry's coming ashore. Perry proceeded ashore at Kurihama (near present Yokosuka) on July 14, presented the letter to delegates present and left for the China coast, promising to return for a reply.

Second Visit, 1854

Perry returned in February, 1854 with twice as many ships, finding that the delegates had prepared a treaty embodying virtually all the demands in Fillmore's letter. Perry signed the document on March 31, 1854 and departed, mistakenly believing the agreement had been made with imperial representatives.

Return to the United States, 1855

Upon Perry's return to the United States in 1855, Congress voted to grant him a reward of $20,000 in appreciation of his work in Japan. Perry used part of this money to prepare and publish a report on the expedition in three volumes, titled Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan.

Last Years

Perry died three years later in New York City. His remains were removed to the Island Cemetery in Newport, Rhode Island in 1866.

See Also

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Perry_%28naval_officer%29

Political Crisis of 1881

Political Parties

Portsmouth Treaty

U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt hosted negotiations between Japan and Russia at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in August 1905. The purpose was to end the Russo-Japanese War, in which Japan was the clear victor but also in no state to continue fighting. Komura Jūtarō and Sergei Witte finished negotiations on 5 September. Japan gained a lot from the treaty, but not nearly as much as the Japanese public had been led to expect. The result at home was the Hibuya riots and the collapse of Katsura Tarō's Cabinet on 7 January 1906.

See Also

Russo-Japanese War (pg. X), Komura Jūtarō (pg. X), Witte, Sergei (pg. X), Katsura Tarō (pg. X), Hibuya Riots (pg. X),

Prefectures

An administrative division, similar to American states or Canadian provinces. They are called ken in Japanese. There are also a few special administative units similar to ken but given different names: there is one dō (Hokkaidō, pg. XX), one tō (Tōkyō-tō, pg. XX the capital of Japan), and two fu, (Kyōto-fu pg. XX and Ōsaka-fu pg. XX). Collectively the Japanese refer to these as the tō-dō-fu-ken and there are 47 all together.

This encyclopedia treats all four divisions as `prefecture' in English. Thus, Ōsaka-fu is located on page XXX as Ōsaka Prefecture.

There is a complete listing of the prefectures, their area, capital, and population on page XXX.

Privy Council

(Q: No Entries)

Nothing here yet.

Ran – Ryūkyū Province

Ran

Japanese:

Ran, which means “rebellion” or “insurrection” or generally “chaos”, is a film by Kurosawa Akira, based on William Shakespeare's King Lear but set in Sengoku-era Japan.

In the film, the character of King Lear is replaced with Ichimonji Hidetora, the Great Lord, an aging warlord. Instead of daughters, he has sons: Taro, Jiro, and Saburo (who is the equivalent of Shakespeare's Cordelia). Hidetora decides to give control of his kingdom up to Taro, the eldest son, while Jiro and Saburo will be given the Second and First Castles. Jiro and Saburo are to support Taro. However, Saburo criticizes Hidetora's plan, claiming that he is a fool to think they will be able to get along peacefully. Tango, one of Hidetora's servants, comes to Saburo's defense. Hidetora banishes both of them.

In the end, Hidetora is alienated from his sons, and he is forced to live alone with Tango and Kyoami, the fool. Jiro conquers Taro, and is then himself conquered by a rival warlord who has alligned himself with Saburo. In the end, Hidetora is reunited with Saburo, but Saburo is killed by a stray bullet, and Hidetora dies of grief.

The film also involves many intricate subplots involving betrayal and violence within families, and highlighting the vanity and falseness of courtly life.

The film is believed by many to be Kurosawa's finest. It has been hailed for its powerful images and expert use of colour, and won the Academy Award for Costume Design in 1985. The distinctive film score was written by Takemitsu Toru.

See Also

Kurosawa Akira (pg 199)

Suggested Reading

“King Lear” by Shakespeare

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ran_%281985_movie%29



Rangaku

see Dutch Learning on page XXX.

Recreation and Amusement Association

Japanese: 特殊慰安施設協会 [??]

The Recreation and Amusement Association (RAA), or more literally Special Comfort Facility Association, was the official euphemism for the prostitution centers arranged for the US Occupation Force in Japan after World War II.

The RAA was created on August 28, 1945 by the Japanese Home Ministry to contain the sexual urges of the occupation forces and protect the main Japanese populace from rape. The RAA's own slogan was "For the country, the breakwater of sex to protect Japanese women" (お国のために日本女性を守る性の防波堤). In September the system was extended to cover the entire country, reportedly with GHQ's approval.

Unlike wartime "comfort women", most employees of the RAA were Japanese women and no forcible kidnapping of women for recruitment by soldiers took place. According to most sources, the women were prostitutes recruited by advertisement as well through agents. However, there are testimonies from some women saying that they were coerced into service as bonded labor, and some Japanese sources even assert that the centers were in fact set up by the US and the Japanese women in them were sex slaves.

In January 1946, the RAA was terminated by an order to cease all "public" prostitution. The ban is traditionally attributed to Eleanor Roosevelt, but was almost certainly propelled by rapidly spreading venereal disease among the troops.

Related articles

* Comfort Women

References

* Downer, Lesley Women of the Pleasure Quarters: The Secret History of the Geisha, Broadway, 2001. ISBN 0767904893 ISBN 0767904907

* Molasky, Michael S. American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa, Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0415191947 ISBN 0415260442

* Tanaka, Yuki Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation, London, Routledge: 2002. ISBN 0415194016.

* Yoshimi, Yoshiaki Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II, Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN 023112032X

Retrieved from:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreation_and_Amusement_Association



Red Flag Incident

Occurred in 1908.

Reigen-tennō

The 112th emperor of Japan.

Lived 25 May 1654 to 6 Aug 1732

Reigned 26 Jan 1663 to 21 March 1687.

The 19th son of Emperor Gomizunō (pg. X).

Reiki

Nengō: 715--716.

Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather

Lived 15 Oct 1910 to 1 Sep 1990.

Reizei-tennō

The 63rd emperor of Japan.

Lived 25 May 950 to 24 Oct 1011.

Reigned 25 May 967 to 13 Aug 969.

Second son of Emperor Murakami (pg. X).

Rennyo

Lived 25 Feb 1415 to 25 March 1499.

Rensai

See Adachi Morinaga on page XXX.

Richardson, Charles

Died in 1862.

Richū-tennō

The 17th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 400 to 405.

Rikken Doshikai

Rikuchū Province

A province in the area that is today Iwate Prefecture. Rikuchū bordered on Mutsu, Rikuzen, and Ugo Provinces.

See Also

Iwate Prefecture (pg. X), Mutsu Province (pg. X), Rikuzen Province (pg. X), Ugo Province (pg. X),

Rikuzen Province

A province in the area that is today Miyagi Prefecture. Rikuzen bordered on Iwaki, Rikuchū, Ugo, and Uzen Provinces.

See Also

Iwaki Province (pg. X), Miyagi Prefecture (pg. X), Rikuchū Province (pg. X), Ugo Province (pg. X), Uzen Province (pg. X)

Roches, Leon

Lived 1809 to 1901.

Representative of the French government in Japan from 1864 to 1868.

The French government took the side of the Tokugawa Bakufu and thus was not real popular in Japan after the Meiji Restoration.

Roesler, Karl Friedrich Hermann

Lived 18 Dec. 1834 to 2 Dec. 1894.

Worked in Japan from 1878 to 1893.

Rokkaku Yoshitaka

Died 1581.

Rokujō-tennō

The 79th emperor of Japan.

Lived 14 Nov 1164 to 17 July 1176.

Reigned 25 June 1165 to 19 Feb 1168.

Son of Nijō-tennō (pg. X).

Rono Faction

Root, Elihu

Russo-Japanese War

1904 to 1905.

How did America win a war against the most powerful country on Earth in 1781? The colonists won because Britain, in addition to being far away from the fighting, had global interests and enemies and thus couldn't afford to concentrate her power in any one region for fear of losing another region.

Japan's war with Russia was similar in many ways. It wasn't fought in Japan, but in Korea, much closer to Japan than to the European end of Russia. Also, while Japan was relatively free to throw herself fully into the war, Russia fought with one and a half eyes on Germany, England, and France. Indeed, European neutrality helped Japan by denying Russia access to ports and repair and supply facilities in Asia. Thus Japan's small size and relative weakness were offset by Russia's distance and European entanglements. The Russian bear, big though he was, fought with his claws tied behind his back.

This is not to downplay the skill or determination of the members of the Japanese Army and Navy. Although they made their share of strategic and tactical mistakes, the Army and Navy performed quite professionally in their first war against a European power. Unlike their behavior in World War Two, the Japanese military is generally given credit for fighting in the best tradition of European chivalry.

Right, so what was the war about anyway? It was about who should control Korea. The Japanese have usually viewed Korea as a dagger pointed right at Japan and have thus always preferred, if possible, to be the ones controlling it. For Russia, the issues were linked to the Asian continental situation. Russia wanted to protect its railways and its access to ice-free ports. Vladivostok was Russia's main port in Asia, and although there were great hopes for Port Arthur, there was not time before the war to prepare it. Vladivostok was too far away and too far north to have much influence in China, thus the need for a better port further south.

Additionally, as an up-and-coming power, Japan was no longer given a free ride on the international scene. She had become a member of the balance-of-power club and Russia wanted to extend its own interests in Northeast Asia in order to limit the power of one of England's allies.

The war itself was messy and costly, both in terms of money and lives. The Japanese siege of Port Arthur foreshadowed the sickening death tolls of the First World War (and probably could have been forseen by students of America's Civil War). At home such sacrifice seemed worthwhile only if the payoff was equally large. Newspapers in Japan began speculating on more and more outrageous outcomes for the war, such as taking the Russian Pacific coast including Vladivostok or all the Russian controlled areas north of China. Japanese newspapers speculated in this reckless fashion partly at the behest of the government. This was the ever popular device of channeling domestic discontent into foreign wars and it almost backfired when the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed, ending the war.

Many Japanese were unhappy with the terms because they had no realistic notion of how much the war was costing their country. Even though the Japanese Navy assured a Japanese victory by annihilating the Russian Baltic Fleet at the famous Battle of Tsushima, Russia could theoretically have prolonged the ground war long enough to seriously damage Japan's economy, not to mention kill off large numbers of her young men. Doing so however, would have weakened Russia just as much and unlike Japan, Russia had land borders in Europe to worry about. When President Theodore Roosevelt suggested peace talks, both sides were quite willing to negotiate.

What was the outcome? For the first time in several hundred years, a Western country had been humbled by a non-Western one. Granted, the winner was the most westernized country in Asia and the loser was the least Western of the European powers, the fact remained that a small Asian country had bested a large European one. So what? It demonstrated in living color to the entire world that Western power and hegemony was not due to racial, religious, nor even entirely cultural reasons. Western power was based on science, technology, and advanced political and business methods, and by adopting and applying these methods Japan had shown the world that anyone could achieve the same results as the West.

Ryakunin

Nengō: 1238--1238.

Ryakuō

Nengō: 1338--1341 (nengo of the northern dynasty).

Ryūkyū Province

The Ryūkyū Islands were a semi-independent kingdom, caught between China and Japan. The Chinese government viewed them as a tributary state (and therefore theoretically should come to their aid if necessary). A 1609 expedition (from Kyūshū?) captured the island of Okinawa and from then on, the kings of the Ryūkyūs sent tribute to both China and the Japanese (who? Satsuma?).

In 1879, the Meiji government announced the annexation of the Ryūkyūs. China objected and the ex-President of the United States U.S. Grant was asked to arbitrate. He decided that Japan's claim to the islands was stronger and ruled in Japan's favor.

Today the Ryūkyū islands are collectively Okinawa Prefecture. There are a host of problems arising from the Ryūkyū's less than completely Japanese history. Some people (a small number perhaps) feel that people from Okinawa Prefecture are not “real” Japanese. Also, some natives of the Ryūkyūs claim that the central government is discriminating against them by allowing so many American soldiers to be stationed in Okinawa, a far higher percentage than are stationed anywhere else in Japan.

Many popular singers and musical groups come from Okinawa Prefecture. These include (among many others) singer Amuro Namie and the group Da Pump.

Sado Province – Suzuki Zenkō

Sado Province

An island off the coast of Niigata Prefecture (or in the past, Echigo Province). Today the island is part of Niigata Prefecture.

(Double check, was the island really a separate province or a special region?)

Saga City

The capital of Saga Prefecture.

Sagami Province

A province in the area that is today Kanagawa Prefecture. Sagami bordered on Izu, Kai, Musashi and Suruga Provinces.

See Also

Izu Province (pg. X), Kai Province (pg. X), Kanagawa Prefecture (pg. X), Musashi Province (pg. X), Suruga Province (pg. X),

Saga Prefecture

Area: 2,439 km2 (1995)

Capital: Saga

Population: 890,000 (1996)

Saga Rebellion

Saga-tennō

The 52nd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 809 to 823.

Saicho

Lived 767 to 822.

Saigō Takamori

Lived 1828 to 1877.

Saigō Tsugumichi

Lived 1843 to 1902.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Itō

Navy

22 Dec 1885

10 July 1886

1st Itō

Navy

01 July 1887

30 Apr 1888

Kurota

Navy

30 Apr 1888

24 Dec 1889

1st Yamagata

Navy

24 Dec 1889

17 May 1890

1st Yamagata

Home Affairs

17 May 1890

06 May 1891

1st Matsukata

Home Affairs

06 May 1891

01 June 1891

2nd Itō

Navy

11 Mar 1893

18 Sep 1896

2nd Itō

War

09 Oct 1894

07 Mar 1895

2nd Itō

War

28 Apr 1895

08 May 1895

2nd Matsukata

Navy

18 Sep 1896

12 Jan 1898

3rd Itō

Navy

12 Jan 1898

30 June 1898

1st Ōkuma

Navy

30 June 1898

08 Nov 1898

2nd Yamagata

Home Affairs

08 Nov 1898

19 Oct 1900

Table 106Cabinet Positions Held by Saigō Tsugumichi

Saikō

Nengō: 854--856.

Saimei-tennō

An empress. The 37th ruler of Japan.

Reigned 655 to 661.

Saionji Kinmochi

Lived 1849 to 1940.

Prime Minister from 7 January 1906 to 14 July 1908 and 30 August 1911 to 1912.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Itō

Education

03 Oct 1894

18 Sep 1896

2nd Itō

Foreign Affairs

05 June 1895

03 Apr 1896

2nd Itō

Foreign Affairs

30 May 1896

18 Sep 1896

2nd Matsukata

Education

18 Sep 1896

28 Sep 1896

2nd Matsukata

Foreign Affairs

18 Sep 1896

22 Sep 1896

3rd Itō

Education

12 Jan 1898

30 Apr 1898

4th Itō

Hanretsu

19 Oct 1900

02 June 1901

4th Itō

Finance

May 14 1901

02 June 1901

1st Saionji

Education

07 Jan 1906

27 Mar 1906

1st Saionji

Prime Minister

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

1st Saionji

Foreign Affairs

Mar 03 1906

19 May 1906

1st Saionji

Foreign Affairs

30 Aug 1906

18 Sep 1906

2nd Saionji

Prime Minister

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Table 107Cabinet Positions Held by Saionji Kinmochi

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Saionji Kinmochi

Prime Minister

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

Matsuoka Yasutake

Agriculture and Commerce

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

Ishiwatari Bin'ichi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

07 Jan 1906

04 Jan 1908

Minami Hiroshi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

04 Jan 1908

14 July 1908

Okano Keijirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

Yamagata Isaburō

Communications

07 Jan 1906

14 Jan 1908

Hara Kei

Communications

14 Jan 1908

25 Mar 1908

Hotta Masayasu

Communications

25 Mar 1908

14 July 1908

Saionji Kinmochi

Education

07 Jan 1906

27 Mar 1906

Makino Nobuaki

Education

27 Mar 1906

14 July 1908

Sakatani Yoshio

Finance

07 Jan 1906

14 Jan 1908

Matsuda Masahisa

Finance

14 Jan 1908

14 July 1908

Katō Takaaki

Foreign Affairs

07 Jan 1906

03 Mar 1906

Saionji Kinmochi

Foreign Affairs

03 Mar 1906

19 May 1906

Hayashi Tadasu

Foreign Affairs

19 May 1906

30 Aug 1906

Saionji Kinmochi

Foreign Affairs

30 Aug 1906

18 Sep 1906

Hayashi Tadasu

Foreign Affairs

18 Sep 1906

14 July 1908

Hara Kei

Home Affairs

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

Matsuda Masahisa

Justice

07 Jan 1906

25 Mar 1908

Senke Takatomi

Justice

25 Mar 1908

14 July 1908

Saitō Makoto

Navy

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

Terauchi Masatake

War

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

Table 108Saionji Kinmochi's First Cabinet

Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Saionji Kinmochi

Prime Minister

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Makino Nobuaki

Agriculture and Commerce

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Minami Hiroshi

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Okano Keijirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Hayashi Tadasu

Communications

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Haseba Sumitaka

Education

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Yamamoto Tatsuo

Finance

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Uchida Kōsai

Foreign Affairs

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Hara Kei

Home Affairs

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Matsuda Masahisa

Justice

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Saitō Makoto

Navy

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

Ishimoto Shinroku

War

30 Aug 1911

02 Apr 1912

Uehara Yuusaku

War

05 Apr 1912

21 Dec 1912

Table 109Saionji Kinmochi's Second Cabinet

Saitama Prefecture

Area: 3,797 km2 (1995)

Capital: Urawa

Population: 6,720,000 (1996)

Saitō Makoto

Lived 1858 to 1936.

Prime Minister from 26 May 1932 to 8 July 1934.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Saionji

Navy

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

2nd Katsura

Navy

14 July 1908

30 Aug 1911

2nd Saionji

Navy

30 Aug 1911

21 Dec 1912

3rd Katsura

Navy

21 Dec 1912

20 Feb 1913

1st Yamamoto

Navy

20 Feb 1913

16 Apr 1914

Saitō

Foreign Affairs

26 May 1932

06 July 1932

Saitō

Prime Minister

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Saitō

Education

Mar 03 1934

08 July 1934

Table 110Cabinet Positions Held by Saitō Makoto

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Saitō Makoto

Prime Minister

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Gotō Fumio

Agriculture and Forestry

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Shibata Zenzaburō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

26 May 1932

13 Mar 1933

Horikiri Zenjirō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

13 Mar 1933

08 July 1934

Horikiri Zenjirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

26 May 1932

13 Mar 1933

Kurosaki Teizō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

13 Mar 1933

08 July 1934

Nagai Ryuutarō

Colonization

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Nakajima Kumakichi

Commerce and Industry

26 May 1932

09 Feb 1934

Matsumoto Jōji

Commerce and Industry

09 Feb 1934

08 July 1934

Minami Hiroshi

Communications

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Hatoyama Ichirō

Education

26 May 1932

03 Mar 1934

Saitō Makoto

Education

03 Mar 1934

08 July 1934

Takahashi Korekiyo

Finance

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Saitō Makoto

Foreign Affairs

26 May 1932

06 July 1932

Uchida Kōsai

Foreign Affairs

06 July 1932

14 Sep 1933

Hirota Kōki

Foreign Affairs

14 Sep 1933

08 July 1934

Yamamoto Tatsuo

Home Affairs

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Koyama Matsukichi

Justice

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Okada Keisuke

Navy

26 May 1932

09 Jan 1933

Ōsumi Mineo

Navy

09 Jan 1933

08 July 1934

Mitsuchi Chuuzō

Railways

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Araki Sadao

War

26 May 1932

23 Jan 1934

Hayashi Senjuurō

War

23 Jan 1934

08 July 1934

Table 111Saitō Makoto's Cabinet

Saitō Takao

Lived 1870 to 1949.

Politician.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Wakatsuki

Chief of Legislative Bureau

09 Nov 1931

13 Dec 1931

1st Yoshida

State: Without Portfolio

22 May 1946

28 Nov 1946

1st Yoshida

State: President of Administrative Management Bureau

28 Nov 1946

24 May 1947

Katayama

State: President of Administrative Management Bureau

24 May 1947

10 Mar 1948

Table 112Cabinet Positions Held by Saitō Takao

Saitō Tatsuoki

Lived 1548 to 14 Aug 1573.

Son of Saitō Yoshitatsu.

Lost to Oda Nobunaga in 1564. (where?) Survived, but the Saitō family were no longer players in the Sengoku wars.

Sakai Tadamasa

Lived ??

From Oct 16, 1939 to Jan 16, 1940, was minister of Agriculture & Forestry in Abe Nobuyuki's cabinet.

Sakai Tadatsugu

Sakai Toshihiko

Lived 1871 to 1933.

Sakamoto, Battle of

Sakamoto Ryoma

Lived 1835 to 1867.

Sakuma Morimasa

Lived 1554 to 1583.

A retainer of Shibata Katsuie. Morimasa beat Nakagawa Kiyohide at the Battle of Shizugatake (1583) but persued his victory too far. His forces were surprised and crushed by reinforcements sent by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Morimasa fled but was captured and beheaded.

The loss was so severe that Shibata Katsuie committed suicide.

(todo: double check all these entries, add details, and make them consistent.)

See Also

Nakagawa Kiyohide (pg. X), Shibata Katsuie (pg. X), Shizugatake, Battle of (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X),

Sakuma Morishige

Sakuma Shōzan

aka Sakuma Zozan (Zōzan?).

Lived 28 Feb. 1811 to 11 July 1864.

Knowledgable on naval and coastal defence issues. Imprisoned by the Tokugawa Bakufu from 1854 to 1862. Advocated opening Japanese ports to foreign traders.

Assassinated for his opinions by some radical anti-foreign samurai.

Sakurakai

Sakuramachi-tennō

The 115th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1735 to 1747.

Sakurauchi Yukio

Politician.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Wakatsuki

Commerce & Industry

14 Apr 1931

13 Dec 1931

Hiranuma

Agriculture & Forestry

05 Jan 1939

30 Aug 1939

Yonai

Finance

16 Jan 1940

22 July 1940

Table 113Cabinet Positions Held by Sakurauchi Yukio

Sanada Masayuki

Lived 1544 (1547?) to 1608 (4 June 1611?).

Son of Sanada Yukitaka. Father of Sanada Yukimura and Sanada Nobuyuki.

Originally served the Takeda. Fought against Tokugawa Ieyasu several times. Sided against Ieyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara but had his son, Nobuyuki, fight for Ieyasu. Thus, when the battle went in Ieyasu's favor, Masayuki was saved from death by his son's influence. Instead of death, Masayuki was banished to Kudoyama in Kii Province.

See Also

Kii Province (pg. X), Sanada Nobuyuki (pg. X), Sanada Yukitaka (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X), Takeda Family (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X),

Sanada Nobuyuki

Son of Sanada Masayuki. Brother to Sanada Yukimura.

Nobuyuki fought for Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara, while his father and brother fought for the anti-Tokugawa coalition.

Sanada Yukimura

Japanese: 真田 幸村

Lived 1570 (or maybe 1567?) to 7 May 1615.

Son of Sanada Masayuki. Brother to Sanada Nobuyuki.

Sanada Yukimura fought against Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara, and again at the Siege of Ōsaka Castle. Yukimura, his father Sanada Masayuki, and their small army fought bravely against Ieyasu Tokugawa at Sekigahara and gained fame and honor for defeating a much larger foe. At that time, Yukimura parted ways with older brother Noboyuki, and set off with his father and the western army to hold back Hidetada Tokugawa (son of shogun Ieyasu Tokugawa) at Ueda Castle. Upon the defeat of the western army, he fled to Kudoyama and waited 14 years, then accepting Toyotomi Hideyori’s invitation to Ōsaka Castle. During the wintertime battle at Ōsaka, he constructed Sanada Castle, demonstrating his resourcefulness and bravery. He rejected an offer from Tokugawa Ieyasu to govern the province of Shinano, opting instead to oppose him on the battlefield until the end. At the summertime battle of Chausuyama, he broke through the enemy army and reached Tokugawa’s flag three times, instilling fear in Tokugawa until his dying day.

See Also

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanada_Yukimura

Sanada Yukitaka

Sanjo Sanetomi

Lived 1837 to 1891.

Sanjō-tennō

The 67th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1011 to 1016.

Sankin-Kōtai

Japanese: 参勤交代

The system of alternate attendence instituted under the Tokugawa Shōgunate that required daimyō to spend some time every couple of years living in Edo. The actual time and frequency was different for many daimyō but was generally one or two years in their domain followed by a year or so in Edo.

Sano Manabu

Lived 1892 to 1953.

Sano Tsunetami

Lived 1823 to 1902.

Sanuki Province

A province in the area that is today Kagawa Prefecture on Shikoku.

Sanuki bordered on Awa and Iyo Provinces.

See Also

Awa Province (pg. X), Iyo Province (pg. X), Kagawa Prefecture (pg. X), Shikoku (pg. X)

Sapporo City

The capital of Hokkaidō Prefecture (pg XXX).

Sasaki Family

Sasaki Ganryū

Japanese: 佐々木 巌流

aka Sasaki Kojirō (Japanese: 佐々木 小次郎 )

Died 14 April 1612.

Sasaki Kojirō was a prominent swordsman; he is most famous for his death in battle with Miyamoto Musashi.

He carried a nodachi (long two-handed sword) which he dubbed the 'Drying Pole'. He went by the fighting name of Ganryū. His trademark strike was respected and feared throughout feudal Japan, the dreaded 'Swallow's tail strike' mimicking the motion of a swallow's tail during flight, a cut reputedly so quick, so deadly and so accurate it could strike down a bird in mid flight.

Sasaki Kojirō was a long-time rival of Miyamoto Musashi.

See Also

Miyamoto Musashi, pg XX

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasaki_Kojiro

Sasaki Kojirō

see Sasaki Ganryū, on page XXX.

Sasamori Junzō

Politician.

Cabinet Positions Held by Sasamori Junzō

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Katayama

State: President of the Demobilitization Agency

24 May 1947

15 Oct 1947

Katayama

State: Without Portfolio

15 Oct 1947

01 Feb 1948

Katayama

State: President of the Reparations Agency

01 Feb 1948

10 Mar 1948

Table 114Cabinet Positions Held by Sasamori Junzō

Satō Eisaku

Lived 1901 to 1975.

Prime Minister from 9 November 1964 to 17 February 1967, 17 February 1967 to 14 January 1970, and 14 January 1970 to 7 July 1972.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Yoshida

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

15 Oct 1948

16 Feb 1949

3rd Yoshida

Posts



3rd Yoshida

Telecommunications



Table 115Cabinet Positions Held by Satō Eisaku

First Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Satō Eisaku

Prime Minister

9 Nov 1964

17 Feb 1967

Table 116Satō Eisaku's First Cabinet

Second Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Satō Eisaku

Prime Minister

9 Nov 1964

17 Feb 1967

Table 117Satō Eisaku's Second Cabinet

Satow, Ernest M.

Lived 30 June 1843 to 26 Aug. 1929.

British Diplomat and author.

Wrote . . .

Satsuma-han

Satsuma Province

Japanese: 薩摩国 (Satsuma-no-Kuni)

A province in the area that is today Kagoshima Prefecture on Kyūshū. Satsuma bordered on Higo, Hyūga, and Ōsumi Provinces.

In 1871, with the abolition of feudal domains and the establishment of prefectures after the Meiji Restoration, the provinces of Satsuma and Ōsumi were combined and eventually became today's Kagoshima prefecture.

Satsuma was one of the main provinces that rose in opposition to the Tokugawa shogunate in the mid-1800's. Because of this, the oligarchy that came into power after the Meiji Restoration of 1868 had a strong representation from Satsuma, with leaders such as Okubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori playing prominent roles in the new government. Saigō Takamori is also famous for his later rebellion against the same government.

See Also

Higo Province (pg. X), Hyūga Province (pg. X), Kagoshima Prefecture (pg. X), Kyūshū (pg. X), Ōsumi Province (pg. X),

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satsuma_Province

Seimu-tennō

The 13th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 131 to 190.

Seinei-tennō

The 22nd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 480 to 484.

Sei Shōnagon

Dates unknown?

Daughter of Kiyowara Motosuke.

Court lady at the time of Emperor Ichijō.

Author of The Pillow Book of Sei Shōnagon, which is Makura no Sōshi in Japanese.

Seitosha

Seiwa-tennō

The 56th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 858 to 876.

Sekigahara, Battle of

Japanese: 関ヶ原の戦い (Sekigahara no Tatakai)

15 September 1600 (on the ancient Chinese calendar, which is October 21 on the modern calendar)

The Battle of Sekigahara was a decisive battle that that cleared the path to the shōgunate for Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Toyotomi Hideyoshi arranged for a council of five of his most powerful retainers to rule Japan until his son was old enough to rule by himself. His hope was that the five daimyō would effectively balance each other and prevent any one of them from taking control. No such luck. The daimyō quickly prepared for war – most of them opting to join an anti-Tokugawa coalition. Tokugawa Ieyasu was the strongest of the daimyō. Apparently he did not actively seek to bring his enemies to battle, but when they threw down the gauntlet, he did not mind a chance to fight.

That chance came at Sekigahara in what is now Gifu Prefecture. Although the battle was close, in the end Tokugawa Ieyasu and his allies won a decisive victory. Prior to the battle, Tokugawa had received word from Kobayakawa Hideaki, nominally allied with Ishida, that he intended to betray his allies during the fight. Although at first Kobayakawa merely stood on the sidelines of the battle, Tokugawa eventually ordered his arquebusiers to fire at Kobayakawa's troops, after which Kobayakawa began fighting on Tokugawa's side. It was in fact this betrayal that led to Tokugawa's decisive victory and the end of the fighting amongst the council of five regents.

Eastern Army


Western Army


Tokugawa Ieyasu

30,000

Mori Terumoto

NA

Honda Tadakatsu

500

Ishida Mitsunari

4,000

Hosogawa Tadaoki

5,000

Shima Sakon

(1000)

Ii Naomasa

3,600

Gamon Bitchū

(1000)

Matsudaira Tadayoshi

3,000

Akaza Naoyasu

600

Tsutsui Sadatsugu

2,850

Chōsokabe Morichika

6,600

Arima Toyouji

900

Kikkawa Hiroie

3,000

Asano Yukinaga

6,510

Mōri Hidemoto

15,000

Fukushima Masanori

6,000

Ankokuji Ekei

1,800

Ikeda Terumasa

4,560

Kobayakawa Hideaki

15,600

Ikoma Kazumasa

1,830

Konishi Yukinaga

4,000

Kanamori Nagachika

1,140

Kuchiki Mototsuna

600

Kato Yoshiaki

3,000

Natsuka Masaie

1,500

Kuroda Nagamasa

5,400

Ogawa Tsuketada

2,100

Kyōgoku Takatomo

3,000

Ōtani Yoshitsugu

600

Oda Yūraku

450

Ōtani & Kinoshita

3,500

Tanaka Yoshimasa

3,000

Shimazu Yoshihiro

1,500

Terazawa Hirotaka

2,400

Toda & Hiratsuka

1,500

Tōdō Takatora

2,490

Toyotomi Retainers

2,000

Yoshida Shigekatsu

1,200

Ukita Hideie

17,000


Wakizaka Yasuharo

990

Total:

88,888

Total:

81,890

Source: [bryant_1995], page 25

Table 118East and West Armies at Sekigahara

See Also

Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. 370), Ishida Mitsunari (pg. 145), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. 363)

Suggested Reading

Bryant, Sekigahara 1600: The Final Struggle for Power, Osprey, 1995

Parts of this entry are from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara

Seki Takakazu

Lived 1640 to 1708. (check these)

Sendai City

The capital of Miyagi Prefecture (pg XXX).

Sengoku Mitsugu

Politician.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katō Takaaki

Railways

11 June 1924

02 Aug 1925

2nd Katō Takaaki

Railways

02 Aug 1925

30 Jan 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Railways

30 Jan 1926

03 June 1926

Table 119Cabinet Positions Held by Sengoku Mitsugu

Sengoku Period

The Sengoku jidai, known in English as the Sengoku Period or “warring-states” period, starts in 1467 with the Ōnin no ran, (Ōnin War, 1467-1478) and ending in 1568 with the Azuchi period, starting with Oda Nobunaga's entrance into Kyōto.

The end of the Sengoku Warring States period is open to debate. Three other dates given for the end of this period in the History of Japan are:

1. The total unification of Japan in 1590 by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi defeated the later Hojo clan of Sagami province in the conquest and siege of Odawara (Odawara Seibatsu).

2. The victory of Tokugawa Ieyasu over Ishida Mitsunari in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.

3. The establishment of the Tokugawa shōgunate in 1603 by Tokugawa Ieyasu.

The power of the central government, in the form of the Ashikaga shōgunate, had dissipated, and leading families throughout the land took to armed conflict to secure and expand their power. In some areas, monks and peasants affiliated with religious groups (the Ikkō-Ikki) also competed against the martial families.

The absence of real central authority lasted until, by skillful diplomacy and showmanship Toyotomi Hideyoshi was able to largely unify the country. Hideyoshi's success was possible largely because Oda Nobunaga had scared the daimyō into reconsidering their goals by showing them the logical conclusion of “every man for himself''. Thus, when Oda was murdered and Hideyoshi assumed control, the daimyō were not adverse to diplomacy if that help them assure the continuation of their families.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Sengoku_Period

Senka-tennō

The 28th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 535 to 539.

Sen no Rikyu

Lived 1522 to 1591.

Settsu Province

A province in the area that is today Hyōgo Prefecture. Settsu bordered on Harima, Izumi, Kawachi, Tamba, and Yamashiro Provinces.

See Also

Harima Province (pg. X), Hyōgo Prefecture (pg. X), Izumi Province (pg. X), Kawachi Province (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X),

Shakaiminshuto

Shakaitaishuto

Shibata Kamon

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katsura

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

02 June 1901

07 Jan 1906

2nd Katsura

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

14 July 1908

30 Aug 1911

3rd Katsura

Education

21 Dec 1912

20 Feb 1913

Table 120Cabinet Positions Held by Shibata Kamon

Shibata Katsuie

Lived 1530 to 1583.

His forces, under the leadership of Sakuma Morimasa, beseiged Nakagawa Kiyohide at Shizugatake. Sakuma ignored Shibata's orders and was destroyed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi's forces.

The loss was so severe that Shibata Katsuie committed suicide.

See Also

Nakagawa Kiyohide (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Sakuma Morimasa (pg. X), Shizugatake, Battle of (pg. X),

Shibusawa Eiichi

Lived 1841 to 1931.

Shidehara Kijūrō

Lived 1872 to 1951.

Prime Minister from 9 October 1945 to 22 May 1946.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katō Takaaki

Foreign Affairs

11 June 1924

02 Aug 1925

2nd Katō Takaaki

Foreign Affairs

02 Aug 1925

30 Jan 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Foreign Affairs

30 Jan 1926

20 Apr 1927

Hamaguchi

Foreign Affairs

02 July 1929

14 Apr 1931

2nd Wakatsuki

Foreign Affairs

14 Apr 1931

13 Dec 1931

Shidehara

Prime Minister

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Shidehara

First Demobilization

Dec 01 1945

22 May 1946

Shidehara

Second Demobilization

Dec 01 1945

22 May 1946

1st Yoshida

State: Without Portfolio

22 May 1946

June 15 1946

1st Yoshida

State: President of the Demobilitization Agency

June 15 1946

24 May 1947

Table 121Cabinet Positions Held by Shidehara Kijūrō

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Shidehara Kijūrō

Prime Minister

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Matsumura Kenzō

Agriculture and Forestry

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Soejima Senpachi

Agriculture and Forestry

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Tsugita Daizaburō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Narahashi Wataru

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Narahashi Wataru

Chief of Legislative Bureau

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Ishiguro Takeshige

Chief of Legislative Bureau

13 Jan 1946

19 Mar 1949

Irie Toshirō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

19 Mar 1949

22 May 1946

Ogasawara Sankurō

Commerce and Industry

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Maeda Tamon

Education

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Abe Yoshishige

Education

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Shibusawa Keizō

Finance

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Shidehara Kijūrō

First Demobilization

01 Dec 1945

22 May 1946

Yoshida Shigeru

Foreign Affairs

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Horikiri Zenjirō

Home Affairs

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Mitsuchi Chūzō

Home Affairs

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Iwata Chūzō

Justice

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Yonai Mitsumasa

Navy

09 Oct 1945

01 Dec 1945

Shidehara Kijūrō

Second Demobilization

01 Dec 1945

22 May 1946

Matsumoto Jōji

State

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Kobayashi Ichizō

State

30 Oct 1945

09 Mar 1946

Tsugita Daizaburō

State

13 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Ishiguro Takeshige

State

26 Feb 1946

22 May 1946

Narahashi Wataru

State

26 Feb 1946

22 May 1946

Tanaka Takeo

Transport

09 Oct 1945

13 Jan 1946

Mitsuchi Chūzō

Transport

13 Jan 1946

26 Jan 1946

Murakami Giichi

Transport

26 Jan 1946

22 May 1946

Shimomura Sadamu

War

09 Oct 1945

01 Dec 1945

Ashida Hitoshi

Welfare

09 Oct 1945

22 May 1946

Table 122Shidehara Kijūrō's Cabinet

Shiga Naoya

Shiga Prefecture

Area: 4,017 km2 (1995)

Capital: Ōtsu

Population: 1,280,000 (1996)

Shigemitsu Mamoru

Politician.

Lived 1887 to 1957.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Tōjō

Foreign Affairs

20 Apr 1943

22 July 1944

Koiso

Foreign Affairs

22 July 1944

07 Apr 1945

Koiso

Greater East Asia

22 July 1944

07 Apr 1945

Higashikuni

Foreign Affairs

17 Aug 1945

17 Sep 1945

Higashikuni

Greater East Asia

17 Aug 1945

26 Aug 1945

Table 123Cabinet Positions Held by Shigemitsu Mamoru

Shijō-tennō

The 87th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1232 to 1242.

Shikoku

One of the four main islands of Japan, Shikoku is separated from Honshu by the Inland Sea. There are four prefectures on Shikoku: Tokushima (pg XXX), Kagawa (pg XXX), Ehime (pg XXX), and Kōchi (pg XXX).

Shimabara no Ran

see Shimabara Rebellion, pg 313.

Shimabara Rebellion

Japanese: 島原の乱 (Shimabara no Ran)

The Shimabara Rebellion was an uprising of Japanese peasants, many of them Christians, during the Tokugawa shōgunate in 1637-1638.

Rebellion broke out on (according to western calendar) December 17, 1637 when peasants rose against their daimyō Matsukura Shigeharu. Christians like to emphasize the fact that most rebels were Japanese converted to Christianity but the other prominent reason for the revolt was the very heavy tax burden; many rebels took the mantle of Christianity later.

Rebels included maybe up to 23.000 peasants and ronin, including many women, in Shimabara and nearby Amakusa Islands under the leadership of Amakusa Shiro (also named Masuda Tokisada) who used a Christian name Jerome. Both areas had been under heavy Jesuit missionary activity during the previous Christian daimyō Konishi Yukinaga.

Terazawa Hirotaka, governor of Nagasaki, dispatched an army of 3,000 samurai to Amakusa but rebels defeated them on December 27, 1637 with 2,800 casualties. Survivors retreated to Nagasaki and governor asked shōgunate for reinforcements. However, in battle on January 3, 1638 shōgunate warriors defeated the rebels who lost about 1,000. They retreated to Shimabara.

In Shimabara, rebels besieged Shimabara castle and took over the fortress at Hara.

Hirotaka had already left for Shimabara on January 2 with 500 samurai and gathered 800 more from Omura. They made camp half a mile from Shimabara castle. They commenced artillery fire from cannons commandeered from Japanese and Chinese vessels. They then requested aid from a Dutch merchant vessel to bombard the Hara fort from the sea. Rebels shot two Dutch lookouts and the ship withdrew.

shōgunate troops arrived but rebels in Hara fortress resisted siege for months and caused them heavy losses. Both sides had a hard time fighting in winter conditions. On February 3, 1638, a rebel raid killed 2,000 warriors from Hizen including their daimyō. However, they slowly ran out of food, ammunition and other provisions.

On March 10, shōgunate forces begun to gather in Shimabara and by April there were 30,000 rebels facing 200,000 shōgunate soldiers. Desperate rebels mounted an assault against them on April 4 and were forced to withdraw. Captured survivors revealed the fortress was out of food and gunpowder.

On April 12, 1638, Hizen warriors stormed the fortress and captured the outer defenses. Rebels held out and caused heavy casualties until they were routed on April 15. The shōgunate had lost about 10,000 soldiers.

Afterwards, the shōgunate forces beheaded an estimated 37,000 rebels and sympathizers. Amakusa Shiro's head was taken to Nagasaki and Hara fortress was destroyed. The shōgunate banned Christianity and the remaining Japanese Christians had to go underground. The shōgunate suspected that Western Catholics had been involved in spreading the rebellion and Portuguese traders were driven out of the country.

From this time until the 1860s, no major battles took place in Japan. During the next ten generations of the Edo period, most samurai never fought in combat.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion

Shimada Saburo

Lived 1852 to 1923.

Shimada Toshio

Politician.

Cabinet Positions Held by Shimada Toshio

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Inukai (check dates)

Chief of Legislative Bureau

13 Dec 1931

26 May 1932

Hirota

Agriculture & Forestry

09 Mar 1936

02 Feb 1937

Yonai

Agriculture & Forestry

16 Jan 1940

22 July 1940

Koiso

Agriculture & Commerce

22 July 1944

07 Apr 1945

Table 124Cabinet Positions Held by Shimada Toshio

Shimane Prefecture

Area: 6,707 km2 (1995)

Capital: Matsue

Population: 770,000 (1996)

Shima Province

A province in the area that is today Mie Prefecture. Shima bordered on Kii Province. It was the smallest of the provinces.

See Also

Kii Province (pg. X), Mie Prefecture (pg. X),

Shimazaki Tōson

Lived

Shimazu Hisamitsu

Lived 1817 to 1887.

Shimazu Nariakira

Lived 1809 to 1858.

Shimazu Takahisa

Shimonoseki, Bombardment of

In reprisal for Chōshū attacks on foreign ships, naval forces from four countries (the U.S., Great Britain, Holland, and France) attacked forts in Chōshū. They also landed forces to complete the destruction of the forts. Chōshū quickly made peace.

(dates?)

See Also

Chōshū-han (pg. X),

Shimōsa Province

A province in the area that is today Chiba Prefecture. Shimōsa bordered on Hitachi, Kazusa, Kōzuke, Musashi, and Shimotsuke Provinces.

See Also

Chiba Prefecture (pg. X), Hitachi Province (pg. X), Kazusa Province (pg. X), Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Musashi Province (pg. X), Shimotsuke Province (pg. X)

Shimotsuke Province

A province in the area that is today Tochigi Prefecture. Shimotsuke bordered on Hitachi, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Kōzuke, Musashi, and Shimōsa Provinces.

See Also

Hitachi Province (pg. X), Iwaki Province (pg. X), Iwashiro Province (pg. X), Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Musashi Province (pg. X), Shimōsa Province (pg. X), Tochigi Province (pg. X),

Shimoyama Sadanori

Died 1949.

Shimpeitai Incident

Shimura Goto

Shinagawa Yajiro

Lived 1843 to 1900.

Shinano Province

A province in the area that is today Nagano Prefecture. Shinano bordered on Echigo, Etchū, Hida, Kai, Kōzuke, Mikawa, Mino, Musashi, Suruga, and Tōtōmi Provinces.

See Also

Echigo Province (pg. X), Etchū Province (pg. X), Hida Province (pg. X), Kai Province (pg. X), Kōzuke Province (pg. X), Mikawa Province (pg. X), Mino Province (pg. X), Musashi Province (pg. X), Nagano Prefecture (pg. X), Suruga Province (pg. X), Tōtōmi Province (pg. X),

Shinran

Lived 1173 to 1262.

Shintō

Shintō (meaning “Way of the Gods'') is the native religion of Japan. It is not so much concerned with an afterlife as it is with this life. Although that may sound similar to Confucianism, they are in fact very different. Shintō evolved from the animistic, shamanistic ideas and practices of the stone age inhabitants (and later immigrants as well) and stresses the importance of importance of nature and cleanliness. In contrast to the rules, rituals, and concern for propriety which characterize Confucianism, (and Christianity for that matter) Shintō has no well developed theology. It prefers that we just live naturally. Thus, what few rituals there are with life's important events - birth, marriage, harvests, and the such. When Buddhism was introduced into Japan, it managed to coexist religiously, if not always politically, with Shintō because the Japanese saw them as complementing each other rather than competing with one another. Shintō is for this life and Buddhism is for the next. Even today, when many Japanese today are about as religious as many Americans -- that is, not very -- most Japanese get married in Shintō ceremonies and buried (well, cremated) in Buddhist ones.

For the record: like most other people on the planet, the early Japanese believed that there land was created by the gods and that they were therefore special. Like many other societies, their rulers were considered descendants of those same gods - the sun goddess in the case of Japan. Unlike most other societies, however, the Japanese never had to face the spectacle of their semi-divine ruler losing the kingdom to some barbarian horde. Thus, Japan was never given a reason to doubt the divine origin of their land. Since it is a myth, and not a terribly interesting one at that, and because I don't know it that well, I will not reproduce it here. There are two good books to read if you are interested in the early Japanese version of ancient Japanese history. The first is also the first extant Japanese book, the Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters), dated 712 AD and the other is the Nihongi (I don't remember), dated 720 AD. The dates on both books are misleading since they were compiled from oral sources and added to over hundreds of years. Both have been translated into English, so knowledge of ancient Japanese in not necessary.

Shiono Suehiko

Politician.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hayashi

Justice

02 Feb 1937

04 June 1937

1st Konoe

Justice

04 June 1937

05 Jan 1939

Hiranuma

Communications

05 Jan 1939

07 Apr 1939

Hiranuma

Justice

05 Jan 1939

30 Aug 1939

Table 125Cabinet Positions Held by Shiono Suehiko

Shirakawa-tennō

The 72nd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1072 to 1086.

Shitoku

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1384--1386.

Shizugatake, Battle of

Took place in 1583.

Nakagawa Kiyohide held Shizugatake for Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Sakuma Morimasa attacked on orders from Shibata Katsuie. Nakagawa was killed, but the defenders held. Hideyoshi came with reinforcements, catching the attackers by surprise. Sakuma's forces were routed.

The loss was so severe that Katsuie committed suicide.

See Also

Nakagawa Kiyohide (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Sakuma Morimasa (pg. X), Shibata Katsuie (pg. X),

Shizuoka City

The capital city of Shizuoka Prefecture.

Shizuoka Prefecture

Area: 7,779 km2 (1995)

Capital: Shizuoka

Population: 3,730,000 (1996)

Shōan (1171)

Nengō: 1171--1174.

Shōan (1299)

Nengō: 1299--1301.

Shōchō

Nengō: 1428--1428.

Shōchū

Nengō: 1324--1325.

Shōgen

Nengō: 1259--1259.

Shōgun

Translates as 'General' or 'Barbarian-Subduing Generallisimo'.

Shōgun is a military office dating to the 800s and originally meant something like “commander-in-chief.” Usually, the shōgun was appointed for a fixed term or objective, after which a new man was installed or the post was left vacant until needed again.

Over time, samurai families used the office of shōgun as a way of legitimizing themselves and their rule of the country “in the name of the Emperor.”

There are three major periods of shōgun rule:

Page

Entry

Begin

End


Kamakura Shōgunate

1192

1338


Ashikaga Shōgunate

1338

1573


Tokugawa Shōgunate

1603

1868

Table 126Shōgunates

The List of the Shōgun on page 415 lists all the shōgun from each shōgunate, along with their relevant dates.

Shōhei (931)

Nengō: 931--937.

aka Shōhyō. aka Jōhei.

Shōhei (1346)

Nengō: 1346--1369.

aka Shōhyō.

Shōhō

Nengō: 1644--1647.

Shōji

Nengō: 1199--1200.

Shōka

Nengō: 1257--1258.

Shōkō-tennō

The 101st emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1412 to 1428.

Shōkyū War

A civil war / disturbance that occurred in 1221.

Shōmu-tennō

The 45th emperor of Japan.

Lived 701 to 756.

Reigned 724 to 749.

Shōryaku (990)

Nengō: 990-994.

Shōryaku (1077)

Nengō: 1077-1080.

aka Jōreki.

Shōtai

Nengō: 898--900.

Shōō

Nengō: 1288--1292.

Shōtoku-tennō

An empress. The 48th ruler of Japan.

Lived 718 to 4 Aug. 770.

Reigned 9 Oct. 764 to 4 Aug. 770.

Previously had reigned as Kōken-tennō (pg. 186), from 2 July 749 to 1 Aug. 758.

Shōtoku

Nengō: 1711--1715.

Shōwa (834)

Nengō: 834-847.

aka Jōwa.

Shōwa (1312)

Nengō: 1312-1316.

Shōwa (1926)

Nengō: 1926-1988.

Shōwa-tennō

The 124th emperor of Japan.

Lived 1901 to 1989.

Reigned 1926 to 1989.

Shuchō

Nengō: 686--689.

Shurei-mon

Siberian Intervention

Siebold, Philipp Franz von

Lived 1796 to 1866.

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)

Japanese: 日清戦争 (Nisshin sensō)

AKA “The First Sino-Japanese War”, the second being The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945.

Japan and Qing China fought the First Sino-Japanese War (or the Qing-Japanese War or Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)), primarily over control of Korea. To distinguish it from the Second Sino-Japanese War, this war is called the Jiǎwǔ War in Chinese because it occurred in the Chinese year of that name. The Japanese refer to this conflict as the Japan-Qing War.

* 1 Genesis of the war

* 2 Early stage of the war

* 3 A short victorious war

* 4 Aftermath of war

* 5 Reasons for the Qing defeat

* 6 Chronicle of the war

* 7 References

* 8 Related topics

Genesis of the war

Korea (under the Joseon Dynasty) had traditionally been a tributary state of the Qing dynasty. In 1875 Qing had allowed Japan to recognise Korea as an independent state. However, Qing continued to try to assert its influence over Korea and public opinion in Korea split, with conservatives wanting to retain a close relationship with Qing while reformists wanted Korea to modernize and to have a closer relationship with Japan.

Following the assassination of a pro-Japanese reformist in 1894, a Korean religious sect, the Donghak, began the Donghak Peasant Revolution. The Korean government requested help from Qing in suppressing it. The Qing Dynasty informed the Japanese government of its decision to send troops to the Korean penisula in accordance with (clause c) of the Sino-Japanese Convention of Tientsin of 1885 in which the two sides agreed to: (a) pull their expeditionary forces out of Korea simultaneously; (b) not send military instructors for the training of the Korean army; and (c) notify the other side beforehand should one decide to send troops to Korea. Implicit in this arrangement to Japanese eyes, was that any troops so deployed, were to be withdrawn as soon as possible (A logical corrollary to clause b).

Early stage of the war

In early 1894, Yuan Shikai, a plenipotentiary from the Qing entered Korea with a sizable body of troops upon the request of the Emperor of Korea to suppress a rebellion. For its part, Japan was ready to pounce upon any suitable opportunity for invasion. When Yuan Shikai retained troops at the request of Korean royalty, the Japanese government sent an expedition about three times the size of the Chinese Army in support of the reformists and subsequently seized the Emperor and the Royal Palace in Seoul by June, 1894. In an effort to increase its influence on the Korean peninsula, the Japanese government established a new Korean government and proposed a project for reform of the Korean governmental system. This was rejected by the Qing, who still regarded Korea as a dependent country. The new Korean government then granted Japanese Army the right to expel Chinese troops.

A short victorious war

War between Japan and Qing was officially declared on August 1, 1894, though some naval fighting had already taken place. The more modern Japanese army defeated the Chinese in a series of battles around Seoul and Pyeongyang, forcing them north, and by November 21 the Japanese had taken the fishing village of Lüshun (aka Port Arthur to westerners, now known as Lüshunkou, literally Lüshun Port) at the tip of the Liaodong Peninsula. During the invasion the Japanese army massacred 18,000 people in Lüshunkou city, leaving only 36 alive to dig graves for the dead.

The Japanese navy devastated Qing's Beiyang fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River at the Battle of Yalu on September 17, 1894. The Chinese fleet having lost 8 out of 12 warships, retreated behind the fortifications of the Weihai naval base, and was soon afterwards caught by surprise when the Japanese landed troups they had staged at Port Arthur on the opposite Liaodong Peninsula outflanking the harbor defenses. The unexpected attack shattered the ships in harbour with shelling from the landward side. After Weihaiwei's fall on February 2 and an easing of harsh winter conditions, Japanese troops pressed into Manchuria.

Aftermath of war

Faced with these repeated defeats Qing signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in April, 1895, agreeing by treaty to stay out of Korea and cedeing a large portion of eastern Manchuria, including the Liaodong (literally: Eastern Liaoning) portion of the modern Liaoning province. Additionally, the island of Taiwan(Formosa) was also ceded to the Japanese. The defeat of Qing at the hands of Japan highlighted the failure of the Qing army to modernize adequately and resulted in increased calls within Qing for accelerated modernization and reform. It also drastically accelerated the Imperialist demands laid on the dynasty by western powers, in particular Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. For example, the latter, after the diplomatic slap in the face given to Japan in the Triple Intervention, moved almost immediately to occupy the entire Liaodong Peninsula and, especially to fortify Port Arthur despite vigorous protests from China, Japan, as well as the United States - all three favoring an Open Door Policy in Manchuria.

Historian Frank Theiss relates how the Chinese diplomat "Li Hung Chang pleaded with the Russians to lease the territory at least to save face for the Chinese" about the Liaodong (then Kwantung or Liaotung) de jure negotiations by at least signing a treaty (already in de facto control). He adds: "Russia consented to lease the Kwantung peninsula, but it actually amounted to annexation." France and Germany also took advantage of the weakened Chinese state, and gained port and trade concessions soon after the wars end. The Shandong Province was especially affected, being along the coast opposite Port Arthur. Qingdao was ceded to Germany in 1897 and Weihai with some terratory called Weihaiwei to Britain in 1898.

The degree to which western powers were emboldened can be infered by examining the actions of the powers in the Boxer Rebellion (1897-1900) where they all but fell over in the rush to blame the Qing government for the rebellion of the resentful chinese population. The result was further humilating concessions from the now moribund Chinese Empire.

Reasons for the Qing defeat

The Japanese government undertook many political reforms, such as the Meiji constitution, a naval construction program and effective modernizaton of both its army and navy. Japan had sent hordes of diplomatic and military officials abroad, imported French and German advisors for their army after evaluating the relative strengths of European armies, and did the same for the navy with Brittish and American advisors. Many of her newer ships were built in US shipyards, especially Philadelphia. After the Triple Intervention she did even more of this culture importation, to the eventual shock and dismay of the Imperial Russian court. Qing followed traditional policies, feeling secure in the strength of superior numbers. Qing was plagued with corruption as well. Corrupt politicians had systematically embezzled funds of the Qing Navy, even during the war. Therefore, the Qing state was neither able to win against the Japanese navy or army. For example, in the middle of the Battle of Yalu, Many units of the Qing navy ran out of gunpowder, and were sunk defenseless, trying to flee.

Chronicle of the war

Genesis of the war

June 1, 1894 : The rebellion army conquered the capital of Korean province Jeollado, moved towards Seoul. The Korean government requested help from Chinese(Qing) government to suppress the rebellion force.

June 6, 1894 : Chinese government informed Japanese government under the obligation of Convention of Tientsin of its military operation. 2465 Chinese soldiers were shipped to Korea within several days.

June 8, 1894 : Korean Foreign Minister failed to stop Japan from sending troops to Korea. Around 4000 Japanese Army soldiers and 500 Marines landed in Korea between June 8 and June 10.

June 11, 1894 : Peace treaty was signed by the rebels and the Korean government. Rebellion army retreated.

June 13, 1894 : Japanese government telegraphed Keisuke Ootori (大鳥圭介), Commander of the Japanese Force in Korea, to remain the military presence in Korea for as long as possible.

June 16, 1894 : Mutsu Munemitsu (陸奥宗光), Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, met with Wang Fengzao (汪凤藻), Chinese ambassador to Japan, to discuss the future status of Korea. Wang stated that Chinese government intended to pull out from Korea after the rebellion had been suppressed and expected Japanese troops to do so as well.

June 22, 1894 : Japan refused to pull out, sending reinforcement instead in protection of Japanese interest in Korea. Munemitsu informed Wang for this decision, which was known as "Japan's first breach in contact with China".

July 03, 1894 : Ootori proposed a project for reform of the Korean political system, which was objected by the conservative Korean cabinet.

July 07, 1894 : Chinese and Japanese diplomats failed to reach an agreement about pulling out from Korea in a series of meetings arranged by British ambassador to China.

Early stage of the war (on Korean soil)

July 19, 1894 : Japanese military headquarters decided on starting a war with China. The Joint Fleet was established, consisting almost all vessles in the Japanese Imperial Navy.

July 23, 1894 : Japanese troops entered Seoul and seized the Korean Emperor. A new government was established under Japanese influence. The new Korean government terminated all Sino-Korean treaties and granted Japanese Amy the right to expel Chinese troops.

July 25, 1894 : The first cannon ball in Sino-Japanese War was fired in a naval engagement between Japanese Joint Fleet and Chinese transporters carring the reinforcement, sunk two vessles in the Chinese fleet including a leased British transporter. Japanese land troops advanced to Chinese army's front in Asan.

Aug. 1, 1894 : Japan and China declared war.

Sept. 15, 1894 : Battle broke between Japan and China near PyongYang.

Sept. 17, 1894 : Battle of the Yellow Sea broke out between Japanese Navy and Chinese Navy. It was the main naval engagement in the First Sino-Japanese War.

Oct. 8, 1894 : Empress Myeongseong of Korea was raped and murdered by assassins of some 50 Samurais, which were seized but later released by the Japanese government. (Korean: 명성황후, Japanese: 閔妃, Chinese: 明成皇后).

Sino-Japanese war on Chinese soil

Oct. 24, 1894 : Japanese First Army under the command of Aritomo Yamagata (山県有朋) invaded Manchurian (Northeastern part of China).

Nov. 21, 1894 : Japanese troops took Lüshunkou (Port Aurther), genocided 18,000 people in Lüshunkou city, leaving only 36 alive to dig graves for the dead.

Jan. 1, 1895 : Chinese navy was annialated in the Battle of the Weihaiwei.

Aftermath of the war

April, 17, 1895 : Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed by Japan and China. China ceded the Liaotung peninsula (the southern portion of Fengtian, modern Liaoning province), the islands of Taiwan (Formosa) and the Pescadores to Japan. China also paid Japan a war indemnity of 200 million Kuping taels.

May, 12, 1895 : Taiwan declared independence in opposition for the cession to Japan.

May, 28, 1895 : Japanese expedition landed on Taiwan. The Republic of Taiwan was terminated. Taiwan and its affiliated islands weren't returned to China until the end of the World War II.

References

* Frank Theiss, The Voyage of Forgotten Men, 1937, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1st Ed., Indianapolis & New York, 415 pp.

* F.R. Sedwick, (R.F.A.), The Russo-Japanese War, 1909, The Macmillan Company, N.Y., 192 pp.

* Dennis and Peggy Warner, The Tide At Sunrise, 1974, Charterhouse, New York, 659 pp.

* William Henry Chamberlain, Japan Over Asia, 1937, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston, 395 pp.

* Colliers (Ed.), The Russo-Japanese War, 1904, P.F. Collier & Son, New York, 129 pp.

See Also

* First Sino-Japanese War aka. Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)

* Russo-Japanese War

* Manchurian Railway

* History of China

* History of Korea

* History of the Republic of China

* History of Japan

* Military history of Japan

* Military of China

* Military history of China

* National Revolutionary Army

* New 1st Army

* List of people associated with World War II

* Post-war Germany vs post-war Japan

* Sino-Japanese relations

* Greater East Asia War

* Mitsubishi

Categories: Korean history | Chinese wars | Japanese wars

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Sino-Japanese_War_%281894-1895%29

Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)

Japanese: 日中戦争 (Nitchū Sensō)

AKA “The Second Sino-Japanese War”, the first being the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) was a major invasion of eastern China by Japan preceding and during World War II. It ended with the surrender of Japan in 1945.

In Chinese, the war is variously known as the Chinese People's Anti-Japanese War of Resistance, Anti-Japanese War of Resistance, War of Resistance, or Eight Years' War of Resistance.

Invasion of China

Most historians place the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War on the Battle of Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge Incident) on July 7, 1937. Contemproary Chinese historians, however place the starting point at the Mukden Incident of September 18, 1931. Following the Mukden Incident, the Japanese Guandong Army occupied Manchuria and established the puppet state of Manchukuo in February 1932. Japan pressured China into recognising the independence of Manchukuo.

Following the Battle of Lugou Bridge in 1937, the Japanese occupied Shanghai, Nanjing and Northern Shanxi as part of campaigns involving approximately 200,000 Japanese soldiers, and considerably more Chinese soldiers. Chinese historians estimate as many as 300,000 people perished in the Nanjing Massacre, after the fall of Nanjing.

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident not only marked the beginning of an open, undeclared, war between China and Japan, but also hastened the formation of the second Kuomintang-Communist Party of China (CCP). The collaboration took place with salutary effects for the beleaguered CCP. The distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. Their alliance was forged literally at gun point when Chiang was kidnapped in the Xian incident and forced to ally with the CCP. The uneasy alliance began breaking down by late 1938, despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China. After 1940, conflict between the Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the areas outside Japanese control. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities were presented, through mass organizations, administrative reforms, land and tax reform measures favoring peasants -- and the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence.

The Japanese had neither the intention nor the capability of directly administering China. Their goal was to set up friendly puppet governments favorable to Japanese interests. However, the atrocities of the Japanese army made the governments that were set up very unpopular, and the Japanese refused to negotiate with either the Kuomintang or the Communist Party of China, which could have brought them popularity.

Chinese Strategy

Compared to Japan, China was unprepared for war and had little military industrial strength, few mechanized divisions, and virtually no armor support. Up until the mid 1930s China had hoped that the League of Nations would provide countermeasures to Japan's aggression. In addition, the Kuomintang government was mired in an internal war against the Communists. All these disadvantages forced China to adopt a strategy whose first goal was to preserve its army strength, whereas a full frontal assault on the enemy would often prove to be suicidal. Also, pockets of resistance were to be continued in occupied areas to pester the enemy and make their administration over the vast lands of China difficult.



However, Chiang realized that in order to win the support from the United States or other foreign nations, China must prove that it was indeed capable of fighting. A fast retreat would discourage foreign aid so Chiang decided to make the Battle of Shanghai his grand stage. Chiang sent his elite German trained army to defend China's largest and most commercialized city from the Japanese. The battle saw heavy casualties on both sides and ended with a Chinese retreat. While the battle was a military defeat for the Chinese, it proved that China was not willing to be defeated and showcased the Chinese determination to the world. The battle lasted over three months and proved to be an enormous morale booster as it ended the Japanese taunt of conquering Shanghai in three days and China in three months.

While this direct army to army fighting lasted during the early phases of the war, large amounts of Chinese defeats compared to few victories enventually led to the strategy of stalling the war. Large areas of China was conquered during the early stages of the war but the Japanese advancements began to stall. The Chinese strategy at this point was to prolong the war until it had sufficient foreign aid to defeat the Japanese. Chinese troops engaged in a practice of scorched earth in an attempt to slow down the Japanese. Dams and levees were sabotaged which led to the 1938 Huang He flood. By 1940, the war had reached a stalemate with both sides making minimal gains. The Chinese had succesfully defended their land from oncoming Japanese on several occasions while strong resistance in areas occupied by the Japanese made a victory seem impossible to the Japanese. This frustrated the Japanese and led them to employ a policy of "burn all, kill all, destroy all". It was during this time period that a bulk of Japanese atrocities were committed.

In 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor which brought the United States into the war. China officially declared war on Japan on 8 December. It refused to declare war earlier because receiving military aid while officially at war would break the neutrality of the donor nation. At this point, the strategy changed from survival to minimizing warfare. Chiang realized that the Americans would do a bulk of the fighting and were better equipped to fight the Japanese so he decided to curtail the activities of his army and focus on the potential civil war after the war. By 1945, it was obvious that the Japanese would soon be defeated so small advances were made by the Chinese army.

The basis of Chinese strategy during the war can be divided into three periods:

* First Period: 7 July 1937 (Battle of Lugou Bridge) - 25 October 1938 (Fall of Hankou).

o In this period, one key concept is the trading of “space for time”. The Chinese army would put up token fights to delay Japanese advance to northeastern cities, to allow the home front, along with its professionals and key industries, to retreat further west into Chongqing to build up military strength.

* Second Period: 25 October 1938 (Fall of Hankou) - July, 1944

o During the second period, the Chinese army adopted the concept of "magnetic warfare" to attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush, flanking attacks, and encirclements in major engagements. The most prominent example of this tactic is the successful defense of Changsha numerous times.

* Third Period: July 1944 - 15 August 1945

o This period employs general full frontal counter-offensive.

The three periods are each divided into finer phases.

Chinese and Japanese equipment

At the commencement of the Chinese-Japanese War the Japanese Army possessed 17 divisions, each composed of approximately 22,000 men, 5,800 horses, 9,500 rifles and sub machine guns, 600 heavy machine guns of assorted types, 108 artillery pieces, and 24 tanks. Special forces were also available. The Japanese Navy displaced a total of 1,9 million tonnes, ranking third in the world, and possessed 2,700 aircraft at the time. Each Japanese division was equal in combat power of three Chinese regular divisions.

The Chinese Forces possessed only 80 Army infantry divisions, 9 separated brigades, 9 cavalry divisions, 2 artillery brigades, 16 regiments and one or two armored divisions. The Chinese Navy displaced a total of 59,000 tonnes and the Chinese Air Force totaled 600 aircraft. In spite of the lopsided military match-up, the Chinese had a size advantage: territory 31 times larger than Japan and a population 5 times that of Japan.

Although Japan possessed significant mobile operational capacity it did not possess capability for maintaining a long sustained war. As a result, Japan adopted a strategy of rapid warfare and conquest. In the first three months the Japanese were successful at making rapid gains in what was dubbed the "China Incident". At this point the Chinese adopted a defensive strategy aimed at weakining Japanese warmaking capabilities. The Chinese goal was to degrade Japanese military strength before resuming an offensive.

Stalemate and foreign aid

By 1940, the fighting had reached a stalemate. While Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China, guerrilla fighting continued in the conquered areas. The Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek struggled on from a provisional capital at the city of Chongqing; however, realizing that he also faced a threat from communist forces of Mao Zedong, he mostly tried to preserve the strength of his army and avoid heavy battle with the Japanese in the hopes of defeating the Communists once the Japanese left. Chiang feared the Communists more than the Japanese as he famously quoted, "the Japanese are a disease of skin, the Communists are a disease of the heart". Moreover, Chiang could not risk an all-out campaign given the poorly-trained, under-equipped, and unorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within Kuomintang and in China at large. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equiped army defending Shanghai and the remaining troops were used to preserve his army.

Most military analysts predicted that the Kuomintang could not continue fighting with most of the war factories located in the prosperous areas under or near Japanese control. Other global powers were reluctant to provide any support — unless supporting an ulterior motive — because in their opinion the Chinese would eventually lose the war, and did not wish to antagonize the Japanese who might, in turn, eye their colonial posessions in the region. They expected any support given to Kuomintang might worsen their own relationship with the Japanese, who taunted the Kuomintang with the prospect of conquest within 3 months.

Germany and the Soviet Union did provide support to the Chinese before the war escalated to the Asian theatre of World War II. The Soviet Union was exploiting the Kuomintang government to hinder the Japanese from invading Siberia, thus saving itself from a two-front war. Furthermore, the Soviets expected any major conflict between the Japanese and the China to hamper any Kuomintang effort to remove the Communist Party of China (CCP) opposition or, in the best case, hoped to install a Comintern ally surreptitiously after the dwindling of Kuomintang authority. Soviet technicians upgraded and handled some of the Chinese war-supply transport. Military supplies and advisors arrived, including future Soviet war hero Georgy Zhukov, who witnessed the battle of Tai er zhuang. It also supported the Communists, at least until war with Germany forced her into conserving everything for her own forces.

Because of Chiang Kai-shek's anti-communist nationalist policies and hopes of defeating the CCP, Germany provided the largest proportion of Kuomintang arms imports. German military advisors modernized and trained the Kuomintang armies; Kuomintang officers (including Chiang's second son) were educated in and served in the German army prior to World War II. Nevertheless the proposed 30 new divisions equipped with all German arms did not materialize as the Germans sided with the Japanese later in World War II.

Other prominent powers, including the United States of America, Britain and France, only officially assisted in war supply contracts up to the attack on Pearl Harbor in late 1941, when a major influx of trained military personnel and supplies significantly boosted the Kuomintang chance of maintaining the fight.

Unofficially, public opinion in the United States was becoming favorable to the Kuomintang. At the start of the 1930's, public opinion in the United States had tended to support the Japanese. However, reports of Japanese brutality added to Japanese actions such as the attack on the U.S.S. Panay swung public opinion sharply against Japan. By the start of 1941, the United States had begun to sponsor the American Volunteer Group otherwise known as the Flying Tigers to boost Chinese air defenses. In addition, the United States began an oil and steel embargo which made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China without another source of oil from Southeast Asia. This set the stage for the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941.

The Pacific War

Within a few days of the attack on Pearl Harbor, both the United States and China officially declared war against Japan. Chiang Kai-shek then received great quantities of supplies from the United States, as the Chinese conflict was merged into the Asian theatre of World War II. Chiang was appointed Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theater in 1942. General Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang's chief of staff, while commanding US forces in the China Burma India Theater.

However, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down, due largely to the corruption and inefficiency of the Chinese government. Despite massive amounts of American lend-lease aid (over US$5 billion from 1941 through 1945), the Nationalist Chinese Army frequently avoided major engagements with the Japanese and was seen as preferring to stockpile material for a later struggle with the communists. Stilwell criticised the Chinese government's conduct of the war in the American media, and to President Franklin Roosevelt. The Allies thus lost confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area.

The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops, as well as being a possible location for American airbases. In 1944, as the Japanese position in the Pacific was deteriorating fast, they launched Operation Ichigo to attack the airbases which had begun to operate. This brought the Hubei, Henan, and Guangxi provinces under Japanese administration.

Nevertheless the Japanese prospect of transferring their troops to fight the Americans was in vain and they only committed the Guandong Army from Manchuria in their "Sho plan", which later facilitated the Soviet advancement after the Soviet war declaration on August 8, 1945.

Number of troops involved

Chinese side

* The KMT Army had approximately 4,300,000 regulars.

* The number of those on the CCP side, due to their guerilla status, is difficult to say, though estimates place the total number of the Eighth Route Army, New Fourth Army, and irregulars at 1,300,000.

See more information of combat effectiveness of 8° and 4° Route Communist Armies and other units of Chinese forces:

* Combat effectiveness of Chinese armies in the Second Sino-Japanese War

Japanese side

* The IJA had 2,000,000 regulars.

* The Collaborationist Chinese Army (zh:僞軍) formed approximate 2,100,000, the only collaborationist army in WW2 which outnumbered the invading army.

About Japanese personal observations in very hard life in Chinese combat front see:

* Observations of Japanese Soldier in Chinese front

Casualties assessment

The conflict lasted for 97 months and 3 days (measured from 1937 to 1945).

Chinese Casualties

* The Kuomintang fought in 22 major engagements, each of which involved at least one hundred thousand troops from both sides, and in just over 40,000 skirmishes.

* The CCP mostly fought guerilla attacks in rural area in North China. It would later give them credence to win them support in the Chinese Civil War.

* The Chinese lost approximately 3.22 million soldiers. 9.13 million civilians died in crossfire, and another 8.4 million as non-military casualties.

* Property loss of the Chinese valued up to 383,301.3 million US dollars according to the currency exchange rate in July 1937, roughly 50 times of the GDP of Japan at that time (770 million US dollars).

* In addition, the war created ninety-five million refugees.

Japanese Casualties

The Japanese recorded around 1.1 million military casualties, killed, wounded and missing.

Aftermath

As of mid-1945, all sides expected the war to continue for at least another year. However it was suddenly ended by the dropping of the two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan capitulated to the allies on August 14, 1945. The Japanese troops in China formally surrendered on September 9, 1945 and by the provisions of the Cairo Conference of 1943 the lands of Manchuria, Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands reverted to China. However, the Ryukyu islands were maintained as Japanese territory.

In 1945 China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but actually a nation economically prostrate and on the verge of all-out civil war. The economy deteriorated, sapped by the military demands of foreign war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by Nationalist profiteering, speculation, and hoarding. Starvation came in the wake of the war, and millions were rendered homeless by floods and the unsettled conditions in many parts of the country. The situation was further complicated by an Allied agreement at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 that brought Soviet troops into Manchuria to hasten the termination of war against Japan. Although the Chinese had not been present at Yalta, they had been consulted; they had agreed to have the Soviets enter the war in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Nationalist government. After the war, the Soviet Union, as part of the Yalta agreement's allowing a Soviet sphere of influence in Manchuria, dismantled and removed more than half the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese. The Soviet presence in northeast China enabled the Communists to move in long enough to arm themselves with the equipment surrendered by the withdrawing Japanese army. The problems of rehabilitating the formerly Japanese-occupied areas and of reconstructing the nation from the ravages of a protracted war were staggering, to say the least.

The war left the Nationalists severely weakened and their policies left them unpopular. Meanwhile the war strengthened the Communists, both in popularity and as a viable fighting force. At Yan'an and elsewhere in the "liberated areas," Mao was able to adapt Marxism-Leninism to Chinese conditions. He taught party cadres to lead the masses by living and working with them, eating their food, and thinking their thoughts. When this failed, however, more repressive forms of coercion, indoctrination and ostracization were also employed. The Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare in defense of the people. In addition, the CCP was effectively split into "Red" (cadres working in the "liberated" areas) and "White" (cadres working underground in enemy-occupied territory) spheres, a split that would later sow future factionalism within the CCP. Communist troops adapted to changing wartime conditions and became a seasoned fighting force. Mao also began preparing for the establishment of a new China, well away from the front at his base in Yan'an. In 1940 he outlined the program of the Chinese Communists for an eventual seizure of power and began his final push for consolidation of CCP power under his authority. His teachings became the central tenets of the CCP doctrine that came to be formalized as Mao Zedong Thought. With skillful organizational and propaganda work, the Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945. Soon, all out war broke out between the KMT and CPC, a war that would leave the Nationalists banished to Taiwan and the Communists victorious on the mainland.

Who really fought the Sino-Japanese War?

The question as to which political group directed the Chinese war effort and exerted most of the effort to resist the Japanese still remains a controversial issue.

Through its Chinese People's Anti-Japanese War of Resistance Memorial near the Marco Polo Bridge, the People’s Republic of China emphasizes that the Communist Party was the only group that directed Chinese efforts in the war and did everything to resist the Japanese invasion, although it has recently admitted that certain Nationalist generals made important contributions in resisting the Japanese. This emphasis is partially reflected by the PRC’s labeling of the war as Chinese People's Anti-Japanese War of Resistance rather than merely the War of Resistance. To the PRC’s official point of view, the Nationalists/Kuomintang mostly avoided fighting the Japanese in order to preserve its strength for a final showdown with the Communists. The Communists usually avoided any conflict even remotely approaching open warfare (the Hundred Regiments Campaign and the Battle of Pingxingguan are notable exceptions), preferring to fight in small squads to harass the Japanese supply lines.

Besides Nationalists sources, third party Japanese and Soviet sources have documented that the Communists actually played a miniscule involvement in the war against the Japanese compared to the Nationalists and used guerilla warfare as well as opium sales to preserve its strength for a final showdown with the Kuomintang (Chang and Ming, July 12, 2005, pg. 8; and Chang and Halliday, pg. 233, 246, 286-287). The Communists were not the main participants in the 22 major battles between China and Japan, which can be attributed to the fact that Chinese fought guerilla warfare in very small squads. Soviet liaison to the Chinese Communists Peter Vladimirov documented that he never found the Chinese Communists and Japanese engaged in battle from 1942 to 1945. He also expressed frustration at never being allowed by the Chinese Communists to visit the frontline (Chang and Ming, July 12, 2005). However, since Vladimirov was a foriegn diplomat, he could hardly have been expected to actually journey with Chinese squads in guerila warfare. In comparison, the Nationalists sent their best troops to defend Shanghai from the Japanese of which a third of those troops were decimated. The Japanese considered the Kuomintang rather than the Communists as their main enemy (Chang and Halliday, pg. 231) and bombed the Nationalist wartime capital of Chongqing to the point that it became the most heavily bombed city in the world to date (Chang and Halliday, pg. 232). However, the size of the Nationalists were at least three times larger than the CCP at the time, so the Japanese saw the Nationalists as a bigger threat purely through size.

A third perspective advocated by some historians is that the warlords actually mostly fought the Japanese, considering that the majority of Chiang Kai Shek's army were actually led by warlords. While the Communists and Nationalists tried to preserve their troop strengths for a final showdown with each other and therefore did not resist the Japanese to the fullest, the warlords had to do everything to defend from the Japanese the territories that they jealously controlled. This perspective is not as well-known because both the Nationalists and Communists were against the warlords and the warlords were unlikely to have well-documented, extensive archives that the Nationalists and Communists have.

Major figures

China: Nationalist

* Bai Chongxi

* Chen Cheng

* Chiang Kai-Shek

* Du Yuming

* Fang Xianjue

* Feng Yuxiang

* Gu Zhutong

* He Yingyin Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of Republic of China

* H. H. Kung

* Hu Zongnan

* Li Zongren

* Long Yun

* Song Zheyuan

* Soong May-ling

* T. V. Soong

* Sun Lianzhong

* Sun Liren

* Tang Enbai

* Tang Shengzhi

* Wang Jingwei

* Wei Lihuang

* Xue Yue

* Yan Xishan

* Zhang Zhizhong

* Zhang Zizhong

China: Communist

* Chen Yi

* Deng Xiaoping

* Lin Biao

* Liu Bocheng

* Liu Shaoqi

* Luo Ronghuan

* Mao Zedong

* Nie Rongzhen

* Peng Dehuai

* Su Yu

* Xu Xiangqian

* Zhou Enlai

* Zhu De

Japan

* Anami Korechika (阿南惟幾)

* Abe Nobuyuki (阿部信行)

* Doihara Kenji (土肥原 賢二)

* Fumimaro Konoe (近衛 文麿)

* Kanji Ishiwara (石原莞爾)

* Koiso Kuniaki (小磯國昭)

* Hata Shunroku (畑 俊六)

* Honma Masaharu (本間雅晴)

* Isogai Rensuke (磯谷廉介)

* Itagaki Seishiro (板垣征四郎)

* Matsui Iwane (松井石根)

* Mutaguchi Renya (牟田口 廉也)

* Nakajima Kesago (中島今朝吾)

* Nagumo Chuichi (南雲忠一)

* Nishio Toshizo (西尾壽造)

* Nomura Kichisaburo (野村吉三郎)

* Okamura Yasuji (岡村寧次)

* Umezu Yoshijiro (梅津美治郎)

* Sakai Takashi (酒井隆)

* Sugiyama Hajime (杉山元)

* Suzuki Kantaro (鈴木貫太郎)

* Terauchi Hisaichi (寺内寿一)

* Tojo Hideki (東條英機)

* Yamaguchi Tamon (山口多聞)

* Yamamoto Isoroku (山本五十六)

* Yamashita Tomoyuki (山下奉文)

Others

* Norman Bethune

* Alexander von Falkenhausen

* Claire Chennault

* Joseph Stilwell

* Albert Coady Wedemeyer

Military engagements

Campaigns

* Burma-Yunnan Campaign

* Honan-Hupeh Campaign

* Western Hunan Campaign

* Japanese Campaigns in Chinese War

Battles

* Battle of Lugou Bridge

* Battle of Shanghai

* Battle of Nanjing (also known as the Defense of Nanjing)

* Battle of Taierzhuang

* Battle of Xuhou

* Battle of Wuhuan

* Battle of Changsha

* Retreat of Xianggui

* Battle of Hengyang

* Hundred Regiments Offensive

* Battle of Sinkow

* Battle of Hsuchow

* Battle of Wuchang and Hankow

* Battle of Nanchang

* Battle of Suihsien-Tsaoyang

* Battle of Southern Kwangsi

* Battle of Tsaoyang-Ichang

* Battle of South Honan

* Battle of Shangkao

* Battle of Southern Shansi

* Battle of Chekiang-Kiangsi

* Battle of Western Hupeh

* Battle of Changteh

* Battle of Central Honan

* Battle of Central Hunan

* Battle of Kwangsi-Kewichow

* Battle of West Hupei

* Battle of Chungyuang

* Battle of Changteh

* Battle of Hunan

* Battle of Beijing-Hankow Rails

* Battle of West Hopei

* Battle of Changsa-Hengyang

* Battle of Kweilin-Liuchow

* Battle of Lungling

* Battle of Tengchung

* Battle of Wanting

* Battle of North Hupei

* Battle of West Honan

* Battle of West Hunan

* Battle of Ninhsiang

* Battle of Yiyang

* Battle of Wuyang

* Battle of Nanning

* Battle of Liuchow

* Battle of Kweiling

* Battle of Tengchung

* Battle of Lungling

* Battle of Beijing-Tientsin

* Battle of Linchi

* Battle of North Ahnwei

* Battle of West Shangtung

* Battle of Lutsun

* Battle of Lienshui

* Battle of Laohoko

* Battle of Hsueh-Feng Shan

* Battle of Hsihsiakao

* Battle of Xiushui River

* Battle of Jehol

* First Battle of Hopei

* Szechwan Invasion

* Battle of Pingxingguan

Battles in Burmese Campaign

* Battle of Maingkwan

* Battle of Mogaung

* Battle of Myitkyina

* Battle of Mongyu

* Battle of Lashio

* Battle of Hsipai

Attacks on civilians

* Nanjing Massacre

* Unit 731

* Comfort women

* Tongzhou Incident

* Shantung Incident

* Taihoku Air Strike

* Bombing of Chongqing

* Kaimingye germ weapon attack

* Changteh Chemical Weapon Attack

* Sook Ching Massacre (against overseas Chinese)

References

* Chang, Flora and Ming, Chu-cheng. (July 12, 2005). Rewriters of history ignore truth. Taipei Times, pg. 8.

* Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story (London, 2005); Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0679422714

See Also

* Military history of Japan

* Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)

* Post-war Germany vs post-war Japan

* Sino-Japanese relations

* Greater East Asia War

* Mitsubishi

* Taihoku Air Strike

Categories: Chinese wars | Japanese Wars | Second Sino-Japanese War

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War

Socialism

Socialist Movement

Socialist Society

Soejima Taneomi

Lived 1828 to 1905.

Soga no Umako

Died 626.

Sōka Gakkai

Sone Arasuke

Politician.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

3rd Itō

Justice

12 Jan 1898

30 June 1898

2nd Yamagata

Agriculture & Commerce

08 Nov 1898

19 Oct 1900

1st Katsura

Finance

02 June 1901

07 Jan 1906

1st Katsura

Foreign Affairs

02 June 1901

21 Sep 1901

1st Katsura

Communications

17 July 1903

22 Sep 1903

Table 127Cabinet Positions Held by Sone Arasuke

Sonnō-Jōi

Japanese: 尊皇攘夷

Sonnō-jōi was a Japanese political slogan meaning “Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians”. The phrase is also commonly translated as "Respect the Emperor, Expel the Foreign Barbarians".

The origin of the slogan are in Takenouchi Shikibu's theory of absolute loyalty to the Emperor, with the implication of being less loyal to the ruling Tokugawa Shōgunate. Expelling the barbarians, on the other hand, was a counterreaction to the Treaty of Kanagawa, which opened Japan to foreign trade in 1853. Under military threat from Commodore Matthew Perry's black ships, the treaty had been signed under duress and was vehemently opposed in samurai quarters.

The slogan was adopted as the battle cry of the rebellious provinces of Choshu and Satsuma. The Imperial court in Kyoto unsurprisingly sympathized with the movement and in fact rather ineffectually ordered the Shogunate to sonnō jōi in 1863. Masterless samurai (ronin) rallied to the cause, assassinating Shogunate officials and Westerners, and culminating most famously in the murder of the British trader Charles Richardson.

But this turned out to be the zenith of the sonnō jōi movement, since the Western powers responded by demanding heavy reparations and then bombarding the Satsuma capital Kagoshima when they were not forthcoming. While this incident served to further weaken the shogunate, permitting the rebel provinces to ally and overthrow it in the Meiji Restoration, it also clearly showed that Japan was no match for Western military might.

It is worth noting that the slogan was never actually government or even rebel policy; for all its rhetoric, Satsuma in particular was a large trading partner who purchased guns, artillery, ships and other technology from the West. After the symbolic restoration of the Meiji Emperor, the slogan was quietly dropped and replaced with another: fukoku kyōhei (富国強兵), or “rich country, strong military”, the rallying call of Japan's wildly successful Meiji Era and the seed of its actions during World War II.

See Also

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonno_joi

Sorge, Richard

Statistical Yearbook of Japan

Sue Harukata

Suematsu Kenchō

Politician.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Itō

Chief of Legislative Bureau

08 Aug 1892

18 Sep 1896

3rd Itō

Communications

12 Jan 1898

30 June 1898

4th Itō

Home Affairs

19 Oct 1900

02 June 1901

Table 128Cabinet Positions Held by Suematsu Kenchō

Suganuma Motonari

Sugawara no Michizane

Lived 845 to 903.

Sugiyama Gen

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hayashi

War

09 Feb 1937

04 June 1937

1st Konoe

War

04 June 1937

03 June 1938

Koiso

War

22 July 1944

07 Apr 1945

Table 129Cabinet Positions Held by Sugiyama Gen

Suiko-tennō

An empress. The 33rd ruler of Japan.

Reigned 592 to 628.

Suinin-tennō

The 11th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 29 B.C. to 70 A.D.

Suizei-tennō

The 2nd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 581 to 549 B.C.

Sujin-tennō

The 10th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 97 to 30 B.C.

Sumino Naoko

The second Japanese woman to qualify as an astronaut. The first was Mukai Chiaki (pg XX).

Suō Province

A province in the area that is today Yamaguchi Prefecture. Suō bordered on Aki, Iwami, and Nagato Provinces.

See Also

Aki Province (pg. X), Iwami Province (pg. X), Nagato Province (pg. X), Yamaguchi Prefecture (pg. X),

Suruga Province

A province in the area that is today Shizuoka Prefecture. Suruga bordered on Izu, Kai, Sagami, Shinano, and Tōtōmi Provinces.

See Also

Izu Province (pg. X), Kai Province (pg. X), Sagami Province (pg. X), Shinano Province (pg. X), Shizuoka Prefecture (pg. X), Tōtōmi Province (pg. X),

Sushun-tennō

The 32nd emperor of Japan.

Reigned 587 to 592.

Sutoku-tennō

The 75th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1123 to 1141.

Suzaku-tennō

The 61st emperor of Japan.

Reigned 930 to 946.

Suzuki Bunji

Lived 1885 to 1946.

Suzuki Kantarō

Lived 1868 to 1948.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Suzuki K.

Greater East Asia

07 Apr 1945

09 Apr 1945

Suzuki K.

Prime Minister

07 Apr 1945

09 Apr 1945

Suzuki K.

Foreign Affairs

09 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Table 130Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Kantarō

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Suzuki Kantarō

Prime Minister

07 Apr 1945

09 Apr 1945

Ishiguro Tadaatsu

Agriculture & Commerce

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Sakomizu Hisatsune

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Murase Naokai

Chief of Legislative Bureau

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Ōta Kōzō

Education

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Hirose Toyosaku

Finance

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Tōgō Shigenori

Foreign Affairs

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Suzuki Kantarō

Foreign Affairs

09 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Tōgō Shigenori

Greater East Asia

09 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Suzuki Kantarō

Greater East Asia

07 Apr 1945

09 Apr 1945

Abe Genki

Home Affairs

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Matsuzaka Hiromasa

Justice

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Toyoda Teijirō

Munitions

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Yonai Mitsumasa

Navy

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Sakurai Heigorō

State

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Shimomura Hiroshi

State

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Sakonji Masazō

State

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Yasui Tōji

State

11 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Kobiyama Naoto

Transport & Communications

11 Apr 1945

19 May 1945

Kobiyama Naoto

Transport

19 May 1945

17 Aug 1945

Toyoda Teijirō

Transport & Communications

07 Apr 1945

11 Apr 1945

Anami Korechika

War

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Okada Tadahiko

Welfare

07 Apr 1945

17 Aug 1945

Table 131Suzuki Kantarō's Cabinet

Suzuki Kisaburō

(double check dates of inukai cabinet and cabinet members)

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Kiyoura

Justice

07 Jan 1924

11 June 1924

Tanaka G.

Home Affairs

20 Apr 1927

May 04 1928

Inukai

Justice

13 Dec 1931

25 Mar 1932

Inukai

Home Affairs

25 Mar 1932

26 May 1932

Table 132Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Kisaburō

Suzuki Shigeru

Suzuki Teiichi

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

2nd Konoe

Minister of State

04 Apr 1941

18 July 1941

3rd Konoe

Minister of State

18 July 1941

18 Oct 1941

Tōjō

State

18 Oct 1941

22 July 1944

Table 133Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Teiichi

Suzuki Yoshio

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Katayama

Justice

24 May 1947

15 Feb 1948

Katayama

Attorney General

15 Feb 1948

10 Mar 1948

Ashida

Attorney General

10 Mar 1948

15 Oct 1948

Table 134Cabinet Positions Held by Suzuki Yoshio

Suzuki Zenkō

Born 1911.

Prime Minister from 18 July 1980 to 26 November 1982.

Tachibana Muneshige – Twenty-One Demands

Tachibana Muneshige

Taft, William H.

Taguchi Ukichi

Lived 1855 to 1905.

Taihō

Nengō: 701--703.

Taika

Nengō: 645--649.

Taira Family

Taira Kiyomori

Lived 1118 to 1181.

Tairoo

Taishō Democracy

Taishō Political Crisis

Taishō-tennō

The 123rd emperor of Japan.

Lived 1879 to 1926. Reigned 1912 to 1926.

Not one of the more mentally fit members of the imperial line, possibly the result of a childhood illness.

Taishō

Nengō: 1912--1925.

Taiwan

Taiyō

Tajima Province

A province in the area that is today Hyōgo Prefecture. Tajima bordered on Harima, Inaba, Tamba, and Tango Provinces.

See Also

Harima Province (pg. X), Hyōgo Prefecture (pg. X), Inaba Province (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X), Tango Province (pg. X)

Takahashi Korekiyo

Lived 1854 to 1936.

Prime Minister from 13 November 1921 to 12 June 1922.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Yamamoto

Finance

20 Feb 1913

16 Apr 1914

Hara

Finance

29 Sep 1918

13 Nov 1921

Takahashi

Finance

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Takahashi

Prime Minister

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

1st Katō Takaaki

Agriculture & Commerce

11 June 1924

01 Apr 1925

1st Katō Takaaki

Justice

05 Feb 1925

09 Feb 1925

1st Katō Takaaki

Agriculture & Forestry

01 Apr 1925

17 Apr 1925

1st Katō Takaaki

Commerce & Industry

01 Apr 1925

17 Apr 1925

Tanaka G.

Finance

20 Apr 1927

02 June 1927

Inukai (Check dates)

Finance

13 Dec 1931

26 May 1932

Saitō

Finance

26 May 1932

08 July 1934

Okada

Finance

Nov 27 1934

26 Feb 1936

Table 135Cabinet Positions Held by Takahashi Korekiyo

Takahashi Korekiyo's Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Takahashi Korekiyo

Prime Minister

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Yamamoto Tatsuo

Agriculture & Commerce

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Mitsuchi Chūzō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Yokota Sennosuke

Chief of Legislative Bureau

13 Nov 1921

28 Mar 1922

Baba Eiichi

Chief of Legislative Bureau

28 Mar 1922

12 June 1922

Noda Utarō

Communications

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Nakahashi Tokugorō

Education

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Takahashi Korekiyo

Finance

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Uchida Kōsai

Foreign Affairs

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Tokonami Takejirō

Home Affairs

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Ōki Enkichi

Justice

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Katō Tomosaburō

Navy

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Motoda Hajime

Railways

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Yamanashi Hanzō

War

13 Nov 1921

12 June 1922

Table 136Takahashi Korekiyo's Cabinet

Takahira

Takakura-tennō

The 80th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1168 to 1180.

Takamatsu City

The capital of Kagawa Prefecture (pg XX).

Takamatsu, Seige of

Took place in 1582.

Hideyoshi was attacking the Mōri castle of Takamatsu when news of Oda Nobunaga's murder reached him. Hideyoshi had already diverted a river to flood the castle and when he suggested a negotiated end to the seige the Mōri (who were unaware of Oda's murder) were willing to listen. They surrendered the castle, freeing Hideyoshi to immediately leave to pursue Oda's assassin, Akechi Mitsuhide.

See Also

Mōri Family (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Akechi Mitsuhide (pg. X)

Takamine Jokichi

Japanese: 高峰 譲吉

Lived 22 December 1854 to 22 July 1922

Chemist

Born in Takaoka, Japan the son of a physician. Educated in Osaka, Kyoto, and Tokyo, graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1879. He did postgraduate work at the University of Glasgow and Anderson College in Scotland. He returned to Japan in 1883 and joined the division of chemistry at the department of agriculture and commerce.

In 1884 he married Caroline Field Hitch, an American. Takamine continued to work for the department of agriculture and commerce until 1887. Leaving, he founded the Tokyo Artificial Fertilizer Company, where he later isolated the enzyme, Takadiastase.

In 1894 Takamine emigrated to the United States. He established his own research laboratory in New York City, but licensed the commercial production of Takadiastase. In 1901 he isolated and purified the hormone adrenaline from animal glands, becoming the first to accomplish this for a glandular hormone.

Many of the beautiful cherry blossom trees in Washington DC were donated by the mayor of Tokyo, Yukio Ozaki and Dr. Jokichi Takamine in 1912.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jokichi_Takamine

Takano Chōei

Lived 1804 to 1850.

aka Takayanagi Ryūnosuke

Studied Dutch. Studied medicine under Yoshida Chōshuku.

Wrote Yume Monogatori and translated several European works.

Imprisoned for his views (as set forth in his book) but escaped. Went to work as a translator for the daimyō of Uwajima (in Iyo?).

Died fighting the soldiers sent to take him into custody again.

See Also

Takano Fusataro

Takarabe Takeshi

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Katō Tomosaburō

Navy

15 May 1923

02 Sep 1923

2nd Yamamoto

Navy

02 Sep 1923

07 Jan 1924

1st Katō Takaaki

Navy

11 June 1924

02 Aug 1925

2nd Katō Takaaki

Navy

02 Aug 1925

30 Jan 1926

1st Wakatsuki

Navy

30 Jan 1926

20 Apr 1927

Hamaguchi

Navy

02 July 1929

03 Oct 1930

Table 137Cabinet Positions Held by Takarabe Takeshi

Takashima Shuhan

Lived 1798 to 1866.

Takashima Tomonosuke

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Matsukata

War

17 May 1891

08 Aug 1892

2nd Itō

Colonization

08 Aug 1892

18 Sep 1896

2nd Matsukata

Colonization

18 Sep 1896

02 Sep 1897

2nd Matsukata

War

20 Sep 1896

12 Jan 1898

Table 138Cabinet Positions Held by Takashima Tomonosuke

Takasugi Shinsaku

Lived 1839 to 1867.

Takata-han

Takatenjin, Seige of (1574)

Took place in 1574.

Ogasawara Nagatada held the castle for the Tokugawa. Takeda Katsuyori took it.

See Also

Ogasawara Nagatada (pg. X), Takeda Katsuyori (pg. X)

Takatenjin, Seige of (1580--1581)

Lasted 1580--1581.

Okabe Naganori held the castle for the Takeda. Oda Nobunaga took it.

See Also

Okabe Naganori (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X),

Takayanagi Ryūsuke

See Takano Chōei on page XXX

Takebe Katahiro

Lived 1664 to 1739.

Takechi Zuizan

Lived 1829 to 1865.

Takeda Family

Family of Seiwa Genji origin, descended from Minamoto Yoshimitsu.

Takeda Giichi

Cabinet Positions Held by Takeda Giichi

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Katayama

State: Without Portfolio

24 May 1947

07 Jan 1948

Katayama

State: Chairman of the Local Finance Committee

01 Jan 1948

10 Mar 1948

Ashida

Welfare

10 Mar 1948

15 Oct 1948

Table 139Cabinet Positions Held by Takeda Giichi

Takeda Izumo

Takeda Katsuyori

Lived 1546 to 1582.

Son of Takeda Shingen. Father of Takeda Nobukatsu.

Katsuyori took charge of the family after the death of his father.

Fought Tokugawa Ieyasu at Takatenjin in 1574 and at Nagashino in 1575.

Incurred the wrath of the Hōjō family by helping Uesugi Kagekatsu against Uesugi Kagetora (Hōjō Ujiyasu's seventh son, adopted by and heir to Uesugi Kenshin).

Lost (to whom?) at Takatenjin in 1581. His forces were destroyed by the combined armies of Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu at Tenmokuzan in 1582, after which Katsuyori and his son committed suicide.

See Also

Hōjō Family (pg. X), Hōjō Ujiyasu (pg. X), Nagashino, Battle of (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Takatenjin, Siege of (1574) (pg. X), Takatenjin, Siege of (1580--1581) (pg. X), Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Tenmokuzan, Battle of (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Uesugi Kagekatsu (pg. X), Uesugi Kagetora (pg. X), Uesugi Kenshin (pg. X),

Takeda Nobutora

Takeda Nobutoyo

Takeda Shingen

Lived 1521 to 1573.

aka Takeda Harunobu. Took the name Shingen in 1551.

Son of Takeda Nobutora.

Defeated Tokugawa Ieyasu at the Battle of Mikatagahara in 1571.

Died of a bullet wound recieved while his forces were beseiging Noda Castle in 1573. At his request, his family kept his death secret for several years.

Takemitsu Toru

Lived 1930 to 1996.

Takeshita Noboru

Prime Minister from 6 November 1987 to 2 June 1989. Replaced by Uno Sosuke (pg XXX).

Taketomi Tokitoshi

Cabinet Positions Held by Taketomi Tokitoshi

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Ōkuma

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

30 June 1898

08 Nov 1898

2nd Ōkuma

Communications

16 Apr 1914

10 Aug 1915

2nd Ōkuma

Finance

10 Aug 1915

09 Oct 1916

Table 140Cabinet Positions Held by Taketomi Tokitoshi

Takuan

Japanese: 沢庵

Also Sōhō (宗彭), posthumous name.

Lived 1573 – 1645

Takuan was a monk in the Rinzai sect of Zen Buddhism.

In 1608, Takuan was made abbot of the Daitokuji temple in Kyoto.

Takuan probably was on friendly terms with the swordsman Miyamoto Musashi. He also communicated with such major figures as the powerful general, Ishida Mitsunari, the Christian daimyo, Kuroda Nagamasa, Yagyū Munenori, the head of the Yagyū Shinkage school of swordsmanship, the abdicated emperor, Go-Mizunoo, and the third Tokugawa shōgun, Tokugawa Iemitsu.

His collected writings total six volumes.

See Also

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takuan_Soho

Takigawa

Tale of Genji

A book by Murasaki Shikibu (pg 233). Known as Genji Monogatori in Japanese.

Tamba Province

A province in the area that is today Kyōto Prefecture. Tamba bordered on Harima, Ōmi, Settsu, Tajima, Tango, Wakasa, and Yamashiro Provinces.

See Also

Harima Province (pg. X), Kyōto Prefecture (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Settsu Province (pg. X), Tajima Province (pg. X), Tango Province (pg. X), Wakasa Province (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X),

Tanabe Harumichi

Lived

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hiranuma

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

05 Jan 1939

07 Apr 1939

Hiranuma

Communications

07 Apr 1939

30 Aug 1939

3rd Konoe

Home Affairs

18 July 1941

18 Oct 1941

Table 141Cabinet Positions Held by Tanabe Harumichi

Tanaka Giichi

Lived 1863 to 1929.

Prime Minister from 20 April 1927 to 2 July 1929.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Hara

War

29 Sep 1918

09 June 1921

2nd Yamamoto

War

02 Sep 1923

07 Jan 1924

Tanaka G.

Colonization

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Tanaka G.

Foreign Affairs

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Tanaka G.

Prime Minister

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Tanaka G.

Home Affairs

04 May 1928

23 May 1928

Table 142Cabinet Positions Held by Tanaka Giichi

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Tanaka Giichi

Prime Minister

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Yamamoto Teijiroo

Agriculture & Forestry

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Hatoyama Ichiroo

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Maeda Yonezoo

Chief of Legislative Bureau

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Tanaka Giichi

Colonization

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Nakahashi Tokugoroo

Commerce & Industry

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Mochizuke Keisuke

Communications

20 Apr 1927

23 May 1928

Kuhara Fusanosuke

Communications

23 May 1928

02 July 1929

Mitsuchi Chuuzoo

Education

20 Apr 1927

02 June 1927

Mizuno Rentaroo

Education

02 June 1927

25 May 1928

Katsuta Kazue

Education

25 May 1928

02 July 1929

Takahashi Korekiyo

Finance

20 Apr 1927

02 June 1927

Mitsuchi Chuuzoo

Finance

02 June 1927

02 July 1929

Tanaka Giichi

Foreign Affairs

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Suzuki Kisaburoo

Home Affairs

20 Apr 1927

04 May 1928

Tanaka Giichi

Home Affairs

04 May 1928

23 May 1928

Mochizuke Keisuke

Home Affairs

23 May 1928

02 July 1929

Hara Yoshimichi

Justice

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Okada Keisuke

Navy

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Ogawa Heikichi

Railways

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Shirakawa Yoshinori

War

20 Apr 1927

02 July 1929

Table 143Tanaka Giichi's Cabinet

Tanaka Kakuei

Born 1918.

Prime Minister from 7 July 1972 to 22 December 1972 and 22 December

1972 to 9 December 1974.

Tanaka Shozo

Lived 1841 to 1913.

Tango Province

A province in the area that is today Kyōto Prefecture. Tango bordered on Tajima, Tamba, and Wakasa Provinces.

See Also

Kyōto Prefecture (pg. X), Tajima Province (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X), Wakasa Province (pg. X)

Tani Kanjo

Lived 1837 to 1911.

Taniyama-Shimura Conjecture

Taniyama Yutaka

Tanizaki Junichirō

Lived 1886 to 1965.

Author.

Moved to Kyōto from Tokyo after the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923.

His works include:

Naomi (1923), Some Prefer Nettles (1929), Arrowroot (1931), Ashikari (1932), A Portrait of Shunkin (1932), The Secret History of the Lord of Musashi (1935), The Makioka Sisters (1943--1948), Quicksand (Japanese: Manji) (1947), Captain Shigemoto's Mother (1949), The Key (1956), and Diary of an Old Man (1961).

Tanuma Okitsugu

Lived 1719 to 1788.

Tayama Katai

Tedorigawa, Battle of

Took place in 1577.

Oda Nobunaga, with about 50,000 men, crossed the Tedorigawa at night to attack Uesugi Kenshin. Kenshin, who had about 30,000 men was expecting the move and was ready. Nobunaga was defeated.

See Also

Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Uesugi Kenshin (pg. X)

Teiseitō

Teiwa

Nengō of the Northern Dynasty: 1345--1349.

Temmei

Nengō: 1781--1788.

Temmon

Nengō: 1532--1554.

aka Tembun.

Temmu-tennō

The 40th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 673 to 686.

Tempō

Nengō: 1830--1843.

Tempuku

Nengō: 1233--1233.

Tempyō

Nengō: 729--748.

Tempyō-hōji

Nengō: 757--764.

Tempyō-jingo

Nengō: 765--766.

aka Tempyō-shingo.

Tempyō-kampō

Nengō: 749--749.

Tempyō-shōhō

Nengō: 749--756.

Tenchō

Nengō: 824--833.

Ten'ei

Nengō: 1110--1112.

Ten'en

Nengō: 973--975.

Tengen

Nengō: 978--982.

Tengi

Nengō: 1053--1057.

Tengyō

Nengō: 938--946.

aka Tenkei.

Tenji-tennō

The 38th emperor of Japan.

Lived 626 to 672. Reigned 662 to 671.

Tenji

Nengō: 1124--1125.

aka Tenju.

Tenmokuzan, Battle of

Tenna

Nengō: 1681--1683.

aka Tenwa.

Tennan

Nengō: 857--858.

aka Ten'an??

Tennin

Nengō: 1108--1109.

Tennōji, Battle of

Ten'ō

Nengō: 781--781.

Tenroku

Nengō: 970--972.

Tenryaku

Nengō: 948--956.

Tenshō (1131)

Nengō: 1131--1131.

Tenshō (1573)

Nengō: 1573--1591.

Tentoku

Nengō: 957--960.

Ten'yō

Nengō: 1144--1144.

Terabe, Seige of

Took place in 1558.

This was the first battle that Tokugawa Ieyasu was involved in. At the time, he was a vassal of Imagawa Yoshimoto.

Suzuki Shigeteru, in charge of Terabe castle, dumped Imagawa for Oda Nobunaga. Ieyasu attacked the castle, but was driven off by reinforcements sent by Nobunaga.

See Also

Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Imagawa Yoshimoto (pg. X), Suzuki Shigeru (pg. X)

Terashima Munenori

aka Terajima Munenori.

Lived 1832 to 1893.

Terauchi Masatake

Lived 1852 to 1919.

Prime Minister from 9 October 1916 to 29 September 1918.

Cabinet Positions

Cabinet

Position

From

To

1st Katsura

War

27 Mar 1902

07 Jan 1906

1st Saionji

War

07 Jan 1906

14 July 1908

2nd Katsura

Foreign Affairs

14 July 1908

27 Aug 1908

2nd Katsura

War

14 July 1908

30 Aug 1911

Terauchi

Finance

09 Oct 1916

06 Dec 1916

Terauchi

Foreign Affairs

09 Oct 1916

Nov 21 1916

Terauchi

Prime Minister

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Table 144Cabinet Positions Held by Terauchi Masatake

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Terauchi Masatake

Prime Minister

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Nakakōji Ren

Agriculture & Commerce

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Kodama Hideo

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Arimatsu Hideyoshi

Chief of Legislative Bureau

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Den Kenjirō

Communications

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Okada Ryōhei

Education

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Terauchi Masatake

Finance

09 Oct 1916

06 Dec 1916

Katsuta Kazue

Finance

06 Dec 1916

29 Sep 1918

Terauchi Masatake

Foreign Affairs

09 Oct 1916

21 Nov 1916

Motono Ichirō

Foreign Affairs

21 Nov 1916

23 Apr 1918

Gotō Shinpei

Foreign Affairs

23 Apr 1918

29 Sep 1918

Gotō Shinpei

Home Affairs

09 Oct 1916

23 Apr 1918

Mizuno Rentarō

Home Affairs

23 Apr 1918

29 Sep 1918

Matsumuro Itaru

Justice

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Katō Tomosaburō

Navy

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Ōshima Ken'ichi

War

09 Oct 1916

29 Sep 1918

Table 145Terauchi Masatake's Cabinet

Toba-tennō

The 74th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1107 to 1123.

Tochigi Prefecture

Area: 6,408 km2 (1995)

Capital: Utsunomiya

Population: 1,980,000 (1996)

Toda Kazuaki

Lived 1542 to 1604.

A samurai in the service of Tokugawa Ieyasu. In 1601, Ieyasu gave Kazuaki the fief of Zeze (say what?) (30,000 koku) in Ōmi.

Tōgō Heihachirō

Lived 1848 to 1934.

A samurai from Satsuma. Studied (what?) in England from 1871 to 1878.

Originally in the Satsuma Navy, joined the Imperial Japanese Navy (at its formation?). Fought in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Promoted to Rear Admiral in 1895, Vice Admiral in 1900, and full Admiral in 1904.

Heihachirō commanded the fleet during the Russo-Japanese War (1904--1905). His stunning success at the Battle of Tsushima effectively ended any hope that Russia ever had of controlling or even contesting the seas around Korea.

See Also

Imperial Japanese Navy (pg. X), Russo-Japanese War (pg. X), Satsuma-han (pg. X), Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) (pg. X), Tsushima, Battle of (pg. X),

Togo Shigenori

Lived 1882 to 1950.

Tōjō Hideki

Lived 1884 to 1948.

Was Prime Minister from 18 October 1941 to 22 July 1944.

He replaced Konoe Fumimaro and was replaced by Koiso Kuniaki.

See Also

Konoe Fumimaro (pg. X), Koiso Kuniaki (pg. X)

Tokonami Takejiro

Lived 1867 to 1935.

Tokugawa Chikatada

Lived 1418 to 1480.

Tokugawa Chikauji

Might have died 1407.

Father of (Matsudaira?) Yasuchika and Sakai Tadahiro, among others.

Tokugawa Family

Tokugawa Hidetada

Lived 1579 to 1632.

The 2nd Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1605 to 1623.

One of Tokugawa Ieyasu's sons.

Tokugawa Hideyasu

Lived 1574 to 1607.

Tokugawa Hirotada

Lived 1526 to 1549.

Tokugawa Ieharu

Lived 1737 to 1786.

The 10th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1760 to 1786.

Tokugawa Iemitsu

Lived 1604 to 1651.

The 3rd Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1623 to 1651.

First son of Hidetada. Brother to Sen-Hime and Kazuko.

Father of Ietsuna (who would become the 4th Tokugawa shōgun).

Completed the closing of Japan (sakoku). Persecuted Christians. Made sankin-kotai obligatory for the daimyō.

See Also

Christianity (pg. X), Tokugawa Hidetada (pg. X), Tokugawa Ietsuna (pg. X), Tokugawa Kazuko (pg. X), Tokugawa Sen-Hime (pg. X), sakoku (pg. X), sankin-kotai (pg. X)

Tokugawa Iemochi

Lived 1846 to 1866.

The 14th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1858 to 1866.

Tokugawa Iemoto

Lived 1763 to 1779.

Son and original heir of Tokugawa Ieharu. Died before his father.

Tokugawa Ienari

Lived 1773 to 1841

The 11th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1786 to 1837.

Tokugawa Ienobu

Lived 1662 to 1712.

The 6th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1709 to 1712.

Son of Tokugawa Tsunashige. Originally known as Tokugawa Tsunatoyo.

Tokugawa Iesada

Lived 1824 to 1858.

The 13th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1853 to 1858.

Tokugawa Ieshige

Lived 1712 to 1761.

The 9th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1745 to 1760.

First son of Tokugawa Yoshimune. Father of Tokugawa Ieharu.

Tokugawa Ietsugu

Lived 1709 to 1716.

The 7th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1712 to 1716.

Son of Tokugawa Ienobu.

Was only four years old when he became shōgun. Died at age seven. (why? of what?)

Tokugawa Ietsuna

Lived 1639 to 1680.

The 4th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1651 to 1680.

First son of Tokugawa Iemitsu. Brother to Tokugawa Tsunayoshi. Died without an heir or any children.

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Lived December 30, 1542 - June 1, 1616

The 1st Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1603 to 1605.

Tokugawa Ieyasu was the founder of the Tokugawa shōgunate of Japan, and is commonly known as one of the “three great leaders” of feudal Japan (the other two are Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi).

Originally known as Tokugawa Takechiyo. Given the name “Motonobu” at age 14. Later changed his name to “Motoyasu''. Finally took the name “Ieyasu” in 1565. It is by this name that he is mostly known today.

Born in Mikawa. When he was about five years old Ieyasu was captured by forces loyal to Oda Nobuhide. Nobuhide used Ieyasu as a barganing chip against Tokugawa ??. He held firm and Ieyasu remained a captive of the Katō family (at the Tennō-bō temple in Owari) for about 10 years - practically his entire childhood.

It was shortly after he returned home (1558) that Motonobu changed his name to Motoyasu. Also around this time, Tokugawa married a daughter of Sekiguchi Chikanaga (page XXX).

Took the name “Ieyasu” in 1565. In 1567 the emperor gave Ieyasu permission to keep the name “Tokugawa” for his own immediate family, while his other relatives would continue using “Matsudaira” (etc?).

Built Hamamatsu Castle (page XXX) in 1570.

Tokugawa was originally daimyō of Mikawa (present-day Eastern part of Aichi prefecture) but was displaced to Kanto during Toyotomi's rule. Tokugawa's influence made him an important ally of Oda Nobunaga. After Oda died and Toyotomi Hideyoshi became Japan's dominant ruler, Tokugawa was named as one of five regents (tairo) with the responsibility of looking after Toyotomi's son, Toyotomi Hideyori.

When Hideyoshi died in 1598, Hideyori was only five years old. The new regent was placed in the care of Toyotomi's closest ally, Ishida Mitsunari, who attempted to hold the Toyotomi coalition together. Tokugawa, however, saw a chance to usurp power from the Toyotomi loyalists, and assembled an “eastern army” to take on Ishida.

The ensuing Battle of Sekigahara (1600) ended in a crushing defeat for Ishida's “western army”. In 1603, Tokugawa became shōgun of an almost entirely unified Japan, a concept that had been abandoned by Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. He abdicated in 1605 and allowed his son, Tokugawa Hidetada, to take over.

Tokugawa was enshrined in Nikko after his death, and his mausoleum, Nikko Toshogu is a popular tourist destination today. Sargent (1894; The Forest Flora of Japan) recorded that a daimyō who was too poor to offer a stone lantern at the funeral requested instead to be allowed to plant an avenue of Sugi, 'that future visitors might be protected from the heat of the sun'. The offer was accepted; the avenue, which still exists, is over 65km (40 miles) long, and 'has not its equal in stately grandeur'.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at (DOUBLE CHECK!!):

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Tokugawa_Ieyasu

Tokugawa Ieyoshi

Lived 1792 to 1853.

The 12th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1837 to 1853.

Tokugawa Keiki

aka Tokugawa Yoshinobu

aka Hitotsubashi Keiki

aka Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu

The 15th and final Tokugawa shōgun. In office 1866 to 1868.

Member of the Mito branch of the Tokugawa Family. Son of Tokugawa Nariaki (pg. X).

Tokugawa Kiyoyasu

Lived 1511 to 1536.

Tokugawa Nagachika

Lived 1442 to 1510.

Tokugawa Nariaki

Lived 1800 to 1860.

Father of Tokugawa Keiki, the final Tokugawa Shōgun.

A member of the Mito branch of the Tokugawa family and daimyō of Mito.

Nariaki was put in charge of bakufu efforts to defend the country against the encrouching foreigners. His own view was that the bakufu should strengthen its military and fight the foreigners, and was at odds with Ii Naosuke on the issue.

He was pro-emperor and favored restoration. Nariaki and Naosuke fought over who would succeed the Shōgun Iesada, with Nariaki championing his son Keiki. Naosuke, who eventually prevailed, favored Iemochi.

See Also

Ii Naosuke (pg. X), Tokugawa Iemochi (pg. X), Tokugawa Iesada (pg. X), Tokugawa Keiki (pg. X),

Tokugawa Nobumitsu

Lived 1390 to 1465.

Tokugawa Nobutada

Lived 1489 to 1531.

Tokugawa Nobuyasu

Lived 1559 to 1579.

Tokugawa Nobuyoshi

Lived 1583 to 1603

Tokugawa Sen-hime

Lived 1597 to 1666.

Tokugawa Shigeyoshi

Tokugawa Shōgunate

Tokugawa Ieyasu was named shōgun in 1603 and his family controlled the country through that office until the Meiji Restoration of 1867-68.

Appendix XXX has a list of the Tokugawa Shōgun on page XXX.

Tokugawa Tadanaga

Lived 1605 to 1651.

Tokugawa Tadateru

Lived 1593 to 1683.

Tokugawa Tadayoshi

Lived 1580 to 1607.

Tokugawa Tsunashige

Lived 1644 to 1678.

Tokugawa Tsunayoshi

Lived 1646 to 1709.

The 5th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1680 to 1709.

Tokugawa Yasuchika

Lived 1369 to 1412.

Tokugawa Yorifusa

Lived 1603 to 1661.

Tokugawa Ieyasu's 9th son and founder of the Mito branch of the Tokugawa family.

Father of Mitsukuni, Yorishige, Yorimoto, Yoritaka, and Yorio.

Recieved Mito (350,000 koku) in Hitachi in 1609. Hence they are known as the Mito branch.

Tokugawa Yorinobu

Lived 1602 to 1671.

Tokugawa Ieyasu's 8th son and founder of the Kii branch of the Tokugawa family.

Father of Mitsusada and Yorizumi.

Received Wakayama (555,000 koku) in Kii in 1619.

Tokugawa Yoshimune

Lived 1684 to 1751.

The 8th Tokugawa shōgun.

In office 1716 to 1745.

Tokugawa Yoshinao

Lived 1600 to 1650.

Tokugawa Ieyasu's 7th son and founder of the Owari branch of the Tokugawa family.

Father of Mitsutomo.

Recieved Nagoya Castle in Owari in 1610.

Tokugawa Yoshinobu

See Tokugawa Keiki on page XXX.

Tokugawa Yoshisue

aka Tokugawa Shiro.

Tokuji

Nengō: 1306--1307.

Tokushima City

The capital city of Tokugawa Prefecture.

Tokushima Prefecture

Area: 4,144 km2 (1995)

Capital: Tokushima

Population: 840,000 (1996)

Tokutomi Soho

Tōkyō City

The capital of Tōkyō Prefecture. Also the national capital.

Tōkyō Prefecture

Technically a to, not a ken.

Area: 2,187 km2 (1995)

Capital: Tōkyō

Population: 11,540,000 (1996)

Tokyo University

Tōkyō War Crimes Trial

Torii Family (Daimyō)

A daimyō family from Mikawa. Descended from Fujiwara Moromasa.

Torii Family (Painters)

A family of famous painters.

Torii Kiyomasa

Painter.

Lived 1706 to 1763.

Torii Kiyomine

Painter.

Lived 1787 to 1868.

Torii Kiyomitsu

Painter.

Lived 1735 to 1785.

Torii Kiyonaga

Painter.

Died 1813.

Torii Kiyonobu

Painter.

Lived 1664 to 1730.

Torii Kiyonobu

Painter.

Torii Mototada

Lived 1539 to 1600.

Son of Tadayoshi.

Torii Naritsugu

Son of Mototada. Ruled Yamura (Kai, 35,000 koku) but was dispossessed in 1632 and banished to his nephew Torii Tadatsune's domain in Yamagata.

Torii Tadaharu

Lived 1608 to 1651.

Continued the family name when his older brother Tadatsune died without an heir in 1636. He was given the Takatō (Shinano, 30,000 koku).

Torii Tadamasa

Lived 1567 to 1628.

Received Iwakidaira (Mutsu, 100,000 koku) in 1603. Was moved to Yamagata (Dewa, 260,000 koku) in 1622.

Torii Tadatsune

Died 1636.

Son of Tadamasa but his fief reverted to the shōgunate when Tadatsune died without an heir.

Torii Tadayoshi

Died 1571.

Father of Torii Mototada.

Served Matsudaira Hirotada and later Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Torii

Tosa-han

Tosa Province

A province in the area that is today Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku. Tosa bordered on Iyo and Awa Provinces.

See Also

Awa Province (pg. X), Iyo Province (pg. X), Kōchi Prefecture (pg. X), Shikoku (pg. X),

Tōsei-ha

Tōtōmi Province

(needs to be finished!)

A province in the area that is today Prefecture. Tōtōmi bordered on and Provinces.

See Also

Tottori City

The capital city of Tottori Prefecture.

Tottori Prefecture

Area: 3,507 km2 (1995)

Capital: Tottori

Population: 620,000 (1996)

Toyama City

The capital of Toyama Prefecture.

Tōyama Kagetō

Toyama Mitsuru

Lived 1855 to 1944.

Toyama Prefecture

Area: 4,427 km2 (1995)

Capital: Toyama

Population: 1,130,000 (1996)

Toyoda Sakichi

Lived 1867 to 1930.

Toyotomi Family

Toyotomi Hideyori

Toyotomi Hideyoshi

Lived 1537 to 1598.

Hideyoshi started life as a peasant, but managed to rise up in the ranks of Oda Nobunaga's (page XXX) army; He was a general when Akechi Mitsuhide (page XXX) assassinated Oda in 1582. Hideyoshi promptly avenged his lord's death and equally promptly took his lord's place.

Aside from his work unifying the country, Hideyoshi is also remembered for his ill-advised invasions of mainland Asia.

Tozama

Treaty of Shimonoseki

The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed on April 17, 1895 between China and Japan.

It ended the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) in favour of Japan. In the treaty China recognized the independence of Korea and renounced any claims, ceded the southern portion of F?gtien (current Shenyang, Liaoning) province, the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands to Japan. China also paid Japan a war indemnity of 200 million Kuping taels, and opened various ports and rivers to international entry and trade.

The treaty was signed by Count Ito Hirobumi and Viscount Mutsu Munemitsu for the Emperor of Japan and Li Hung-Chang and Li Ching-Fong on behalf of the Emperor of China.

The harsh conditions imposed on China led to the Triple Intervention of Russia, France, and Germany. They demanded that Japan withdrew its claim on F?gtien province, concerned that Port Arthur would fall under Japanese control. In November 1895 Japan withdrew its claim on F?gtien province in return for an increased war indemnity from China. The European powers were not concerned with any of the other conditions, or the 'free hand' Japan had been granted in Korea.

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Treaty_of_Shimonoseki

Triple Intervention

After the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ended the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Russia, France, and Germany objected to part of the treaty and compelled Japan to withdrew its claim on F?gtien province in return for an increased war indemnity from China.

The Japanese people were not happy with the intervention in a treaty between Japan and China and their anger was increased when a few years later Russia assumed control of Port Arthur from China – Port Arthur was in the area that Russia, France, and Germany had intervened to prevent Japan from controlling.

This was part of a broader Russo-Japanese rivalry in Northeast Asia that resulted in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.

Truman, Harry S.

Tsuchimikado-tennō

The 83th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 1198 to 1210.

Tsu City

The capital of Mie Prefecture (pg XX).

Tsuda Mamichi

Lived 1829 to 1903.

Tsuda Sokichi

Lived 1873 to 1961.

Tsuda Umeko

Lived 1865 to 1929

Tsukude Castle

Tsukushi Hirokado

Tsushima, Battle of

Tsushima Province

A group of islands that are today part of Nagasaki Prefecture. They lay between in the Sea of Japan, between Honshū / Kyūshū and the Korean peninsula.

Twenty-One Demands

Uchida Ryohei – Uzen Province

Uchida Ryohei

Lived 1874 to 1937.

Uchidehama, Battle of

Took place in 1582.

The Akechi army, retreating from their loss at the battle of Yamazaki, was joined by Akechi Mitsuharu, the cousin of Akechi Mitsuhide. (Mitsuhide was killed at Yamazaki.) Mitsuharu fought Hori Hidemasa, who was pursuing the Akechi on behalf of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, at Uchidehama. The Akechi army lost.

See Also

Akechi Mitsuharu (pg. X), Akechi Mitsuhide (pg. X), Oda Nobunaga (pg. X), Toyotomi Hideyoshi (pg. X), Hori Hidemasa (pg. X), Yamazaki, Battle of (pg. X), Honnōji, Seige of (pg. X)

Uchimura Kanzo

Lived 1861 to 1930.

Udaijin

Uda-tennō

The 59th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 887 to 897.

Uedahara, Battle of

Took place in 1548.

The first battle in Japan where arquebuses were used. Takeda Shingen lost to Murakami Yoshikiyo. Yoshikiyo had 50 ashigaru armed with arquebuses.

See Also

Takeda Shingen (pg. X), Murakami Yoshikiyo (pg. X), Arquebus (pg. X), Ashigaru (pg. X)

Ueda, Seige of

Took place in 1600.

Tokugawa Hidetada, on his way to join his father, Ieyasu, stopped to seige Ueda castle. The castle was held by Sanada Masayuki and his son Sanada Yukimura. When the castle did not fall as quickly as Hidetada had hoped / expected, he abandoned the seige and hurried to meet up with Ieyasu. As a result of this delay, Hidetada missed the battle of Sekigahara.

See Also

Sanada Masayuki (pg. X), Sanada Yukimura (pg. X), Sekigahara, Battle of (pg. X), Tokugawa Hidetada (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X)

Ueki Emori

Lived 1857 to 1892.

Uesugi Family (Ogigayatsu)

Uesugi Family (Yamaouchi)

A daimyō family descended from Fujiwara Yoshikado (pg. X).

Uesugi Kagekatsu

Lived 1555 to 1623.

Uesugi Kagenobu

Uesugi Kagetora

Lived 1552 to 1579.

The 7th son of Hōjō Ujiyasu (pg. X), was adopted by Uesugi Kenshin.

Uesugi Kenshin

aka Nagao Kagetora

Lived 1530 to 1578.

The 3rd son of Nagao Tamekage. The Nagao family were vassals of the Uesugi but in 1551, Kenshin forced Uesugi Norimasa to adopt him as his son, give him offices and titles, and of course the Uesugi name. Norimasa had been defeated by Hōjō Ujiyasu and didn't have much choice but to accept.

Uesugi Norimasa

Lived 1522 to 1579.

Defeated several times by the Hōjō, had the good fortune to have a very capable retainer in Nagao Kagetora, whom he would adopt.

Uesugi Norisada

Uesugi Tomosada

Died 1544.

Last of the Ogigayatsu Uesugi.

Uesugi Yoshiharu

Ugaki Kazushige

Lived 1868 to 1956.

Ugo Province

A province in the area that is today Akita Prefecture (pg. ). Ugo bordered on Mutsu, Rikuchū, Rikuzen, and Uzen Provinces.

See Also

Akita Prefecture (pg. X), Mutsu Province (pg. X), Rikuchū Province (pg. X), Rikuzen Province (pg. X), Uzen Province (pg. X)

Ukita Hideie

Umezu Yoshijiro

Lived 1882 to 1949.

Unkei

Died 1223. Maybe.

Uno Sosuke

Prime Minister from 2 June 1989 to 10 August 1989. Replaced by Kaifu Toshiki (pg XXX).

Urawa City

The capital of Saitama Prefecture (pg XXX).

U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce

Utsunomiya City

The capital of Tochigi Prefecture (pg XXX).

Utsunomiya-han

Uwajima

Uzen Province

A province in the area that is today Yamagata Prefecture. Uzen bordered on Echigo, Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, and Ugo Provinces.

See Also

Echigo Province (pg. X), Iwaki Province (pg. X), Iwashiro Province (pg. X), Rikuzen Province (pg. X), Ugo Province (pg. X), Yamagata Prefecture (pg. X),

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Wado Province – Witte, Sergei

Wado Province

Wadō

Nengō: 708--714.

Wajima City

A city of about 30,000 people on the Noto-hanto, in Ishikawa.

Wajima-nuri

A style of laquerware from the city of Wajima in Ishikawa.

Wakamatsu-han

Wakasa Province

A province in the area that is today Fukui Prefecture. Wakasa bordered on Echizen, Ōmi, Tamba, Tango, and Yamashiro Provinces.

Domains

Obama (92,000 koku): Kyōgoku Takatsugu received from Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1600.

See Also

Echizen Province (pg. X), Fukui Prefecture (pg. X), Kyōgoku Takatsugu (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X), Tango Province (pg. X), Tokugawa Ieyasu (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X),

Wakatsuki Reijirō

Lived 1866 to 1949.

Prime Minister from 30 January 1926 to 20 April 1927 and 14 April 1931 to 14 December 1931.

Wakayama City

The capital city of Wakayama Prefecture.

Wakayama Prefecture

Area: 4,724 km2 (1995)

Capital: Wakayama

Population: 1,100,000 (1996)

Wang Ching-wei

Wang Yang-ming

War Crimes, Class A

Warring States Period

The period of more-or-less constant warfare that lasted from the Ōnin War until Hideyoshi managed to exert control over most of the country.

Waseda University

aka Tōkyō College.

Washington Naval Conference

Took place in Washington, DC from November 1921 to February 1922. , France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States (as well as a couple of other countries!) participated. Naval arms limitations, rules for submarine warfare, and the status of various islands held by the powers in the Pacific were among the topics discussed.

The conference resulted in several treaties. The Four-Powers Treaty (France, Great Britain, Japan, and the United States) dealt with the various countries' various holdings in the Pacific. The Five-Powers Treaty (France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States) dealt with naval arms limitations. The Nine-Powers Treaty (France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and the United States and ??) dealt with the “Open Door” policy in China.

The Americans at least were reading the Japanese delegation's telegrams and it is possible that the British were as well. The American snooping was made public a few years later by Herbert O. Yardley, the chief of the American Black Chamber – the secret government agency that had cryptanalyzed (broken) the Japanese codes during the conference.

Sources and Suggested Reading

The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley, [yardley_1931]

The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing by David Kahn, [kahn_1996]

The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail by David Kahn, [kahn_2004]

See Also

American Black Chamber (pg 22), American Black Chamber, The (pg 23), Five-Powers Treaty (pg 102), Four-Powers Treaty (pg 102), Nine-Powers Treaty (pg 250), Yardley, Herbert O. (pg 379)

Watanabe Hanzō

Watanabe Jotaro

Lived

Witte, Sergei

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Yagyū Munenori – Yūryaku-tennō

Yagyū Munenori

Lived

The head of the Yagyū Shinkage school of swordsmanship. Corresponded with the Zen monk Takuan.

Yamagata Aritomo

Lived 1838 to 1922.

Prime Minister from 24 December 1889 to 6 May 1891 and 8 November 1898 to 19 October 1900.

Yamagata City

The capital city of Yamagata Prefecture (pg. X).

Yamagata Masakage

Yamagata Prefecture

Area: 9,323 km2 (1995)

Capital: Yamagata

Population: 1,260,000 (1996)

Yamaguchi City

The capital city of Yamaguchi Prefecture (pg. X).

Yamaguchi Prefecture

Area: 6,110 km2 (1995)

Capital: Yamaguchi

Population: 1,550,000 (1996)

Yamakawa Hitoshi

Lived 1880 to 1958.

Yamakawa Kikue

Lived 1890 to 1980.

Yamamoto Gonnohyōe

aka Yamamoto Gonbei.

Lived 1852 to 1933.

Prime Minister from 20 February 1913 to 16 April 1914 and 2 September 1923 to 7 January 1924.

Yamamoto Isoroku

Lived 1884 to 1943.

Naval officer. He is generally credited with planning and managing the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. Held the rank of admiral when he was shot down by American fighters in 1943.

Yamanashi Prefecture

Area: 4,465 km2 (1995)

Capital: Kōfu

Population: 880,000 (1996)

Yamashiro Province

A province in the area that is today Kyōto Prefecture. Yamashiro bordered on Iga, Kawachi, Ōmi, Settsu, Tamba, Wakasa, and Yamato Provinces.

See Also

Iga Province (pg. X), Kawachi Province (pg. X), Kyōto Prefecture (pg. X), Ōmi Province (pg. X), Settsu Province (pg. X), Tamba Province (pg. X), Wakasa Province (pg. X), Yamato Province (pg. X),

Yamato Province

A province in the area that is today Nara Prefecture. Yamato bordered on Iga, Ise, Kawachi, Kii, and Yamashiro Provinces.

See Also

Iga Province (pg. X), Ise Province (pg. X), Kawachi Province (pg. X), Kii Province (pg. X), Nara Prefecture (pg. X), Yamashiro Province (pg. X),

Yamazaki, Battle of

1582

Toyotomi Hideyoshi crushed Akechi Mitsuhide, the assassin of Oda Nobunaga, at Yamazaki. Mitsuhide had hoped to take Nobunaga's place, but with his defeat, Nobunaga's authority went to Hideyoshi.

Yanagida Kunio

Lived 1875 to 1962.

Yanagida Town

A small town on the Noto Peninsula (pg. X) in Ishikawa Prefecture (pg. X).

Yanagi Muneyoshi

Lived 1889 to 1961.

Yanaibara Tadao

see Yanaihara Tadao on page 379.

Yanaihara Tadao

aka Yanaibara Tadao.

Lived 1893 to 1961.

Yardley, Herbert O.

Lived 13 April 1889 to 7 August 1958

The founder and head of the American Black Chamber (pg 22) and author of the book, The American Black Chamber (pg 23). Under Yardley, the cryptanalysts of the American Black Chamber broke Japanese diplomatic codes and were able to furnish American negotiators with significant information during the Washington Naval Conference of 1921-1922. He later helped the Nationalists in China break Japanese codes and worked briefly for the Canadian government, helping it set up a cryptological section.

Yardley was born and raised in Worthington, Indiana. His mother, Mary Emma Yardley, died when he was 13. His father, Robert Kirkbride Yardley, was a station master and telegrapher for a railroad. From him, Herbert learned to use the telegraph. The “O” in his name stands for Osborn – his mothers' maiden name: Herbert added it to his name because he needed a third letter for his telegraph signature.

After graduating high school in 1907, Yardley worked as a telegrapher for a railroad. In 1912, after passing the civil service exam, he was hired as a government telegrapher. His work in the code room and started his career in cryptology by breaking the U.S. government codes that crossed his desk. At that time, American codes were very weak and Yardley solved them easily. He was shocked to learn that President Wilson was using a code that had been in use for over ten years. The weakness of American codes worried Yardley, especially considering the war in Europe, so he wrote up a hundred-page “Solution of American Diplomatic Codes” and gave it to his boss.

Breaking American codes got Yardley wondering about the codes of other countries. American participation in the war gave Yardley an opportunity to sell the government on his idea to set up a section to break other countries' codes. He convinced Major Ralph Van Deman of the need and in June-July of 1917 Herbert Yardley became a first lieutenant in the Signal Corps and head of the newly created eighth section of military intelligence – MI-8.

Yardley proved to be a very good administrator and during the war the people of MI-8 performed well even if they did not have any spectacular successes. After the war, the American Army and the State department decided to jointly fund MI-8 and Yardley continued as head of the “Cipher Bureau”. They set up shop in New York City for legal reasons.

Cracking Japanese codes was a priority. Kahn ([kahn_2004], pg 62) states:

The most important target was Japan. Its belligerence toward China jeopardized America's Open Door policy. Its emigrants exacerbated American racism. Its naval growth menaced American power in the western Pacific. Its commercial expansion threatened American dominance of Far Eastern markets.

After close to a year, Yardley and his staff finally managed to break the Japanese codes and were still reading Japanese diplomatic traffic when Washington hosted the Washington Naval Conference in 1921. The information the the Cipher Bureau provided the American delegation was instrumental in getting the Japanese side to agree to a 10:6 ratio instead of the 10:7 ratio the Japanese wanted. This was the hight of Yardley's cryptanalytic career.

Unfortunately, Yardley spent much of his time in New York involved in unrelated activities. Also, the flow of diplomatic telegrams dried up as companies became less willing to break the law to help the government. In Washington, William Friedman was actively exploring cryptographic frontiers for the Army – the Cipher Bureau was becoming irrelevant. However, it was moral indignation that finally doomed the bureau. Henry L. Stimpson was Secretary of State under President Hoover. When he found out about Yardley and the Cipher Bureau, he was furious and withdrew funding, summing up his argument with “Gentlemen do not read each other's mail.”

The Cipher Bureau closed its doors for good on 31 October 1929 – just two days after the stock market crashed and the Great Depression began. Not a good time for someone with Herbert O. Yardley's rather esoteric skills to be out of a job. Unable to find anything promising and with a wife and young son to support, Yardley decided to try writing about his old job. The result was The American Black Chamber published by Bobbs-Merrill in 1931.

The American Black Chamber was entertaining and based on fact – mostly telling the story of Yardley's breaking of the Japanese codes and the effect of that at the Washington Naval Conference. It sold well and gave Yardley a taste of fame and infamy. The American government was highly unhappy. The Japanese government was embarrassed and highly unhappy.

None of Yardley's many later attempts at writing were as successful as The American Black Chamber. Still, he published several articles, a novel called The Blonde Countess, and worked on a few movies (including Rendezvous, based very loosely on The Blonde Countess) as a writer and technical advisor. It paid the bills.

[Add info on China and Canada]

Yardley died at 1:15 pm on 7 August 1958, a week or so after having a major stroke. He is buried at Arlinton National Cemetery, Grave 429-1 of Section 30.

Sources and Suggested Reading

The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley, [yardley_1931]

The Codebreakers by David Kahn, [kahn_1996]

The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail by David Kahn, [kahn_2004]

See Also

American Black Chamber (pg 22), American Black Chamber, The (pg 23), Washington Naval Conference (pg 376)

Yoshikawa Eiji

Japanese: 吉川 英治

Lived 11 August 1892 to 7 September 1962

A Japanese author specializing in historical novels.

Yoshikawa Eiji was born Yoshikawa Hidetsugu (吉川英次) in Kanagawa prefecture, in what is now a part of Yokohama. Because of his father's failed business, he had to drop out of primary shcool to work when he was eleven years old. When he was 18, after a near-fatal accident working at the Yokohama docks, he moved to Tokyo and became an apprentice in a gold lacquer workshop. Around this time he became interested in comic haiku. He joined a poetry society and started writing comic haikus under the pseudonymn “Kijiro”.

In 1914, with The Tale of Enoshima, he won first prize in a novel-writing contest sponsored by the publisher Kodansha. He joined the newspaper Maiyu Shimbun in 1921, and in the following year he began publishing serializations, starting with Life of Shinran.

He married Yasu Akazawa in 1923, the year of the Great Kanto Earthquake. His experiences in the earthquake strengthened his resolve to make writing his career. In the following years he published stories in various periodicals published by Kodansha, which recognized him as their number one author. He used 19 different pen names before settling on Yoshikawa Eiji. He first used this pen-name with the serialization of Sword Trouble, Woman Trouble. His name became a household word after Secret Record of Naruto was serialized in the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun. From then on the public's appetite for his brand of adventure writing was insatiable.

In the early thirties his writing became introspective, reflecting growing troubles in his personal life. But in 1935, with the serialization of Miyamoto Musashi in the Asahi Shimbun, his writing settled firmly in the genre of historical adventure fiction.

Upon the outbreak of war with China in 1937 the Asahi Shimbun sent him into the field as a special correspondent. At this time he also divorced Yasu Akazawa and married Fumiko Ikedo. During the war he continued writing novels, and became more influenced by Chinese culture. Among the works of this period are Taiko and his re-telling of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

At the end of the war he stopped writing and settled down to a quiet retirement in Yoshino (present-day Oumeshi) on the outskirts of Tokyo, but he soon started writing again in 1947. His post-war works include New Tale of the Heike, published in the Asahi Weekly (1950), and A Private Record of the Pacific War (1958).

He was awarded the Cultural Order of Merit in 1960 and the Mainichi Art Award just before his death in 1962, of cancer.

English translations

Four of his books have been translated into English. They are:

* Miyamoto Musashi translated as Musashi by Charles S. Terry ISBN 4-7700-1957-2

* Taiko ki translated as Taiko: An Epic Novel of War and Glory in Feudal Japan by William Scott Wilson ISBN 4-7700-2609-9

* Shin Heike monogatari translated as The Heike Story: A Modern Translation of the Classic Tale of Love and War by Fuki Wooyenaka Uramatsu. Illustrated by Kenkichi Sugimoto. ISBN 0-8048-3318-4

* Wasurenokori no ki translated as Fragments of a Past: A Memoir by Edwin McClellan ISBN 4-7700-2064-3

Works in Print in Japanese

The Japanese publisher Kodansha currently publishes an 80-volume series: Yoshikawa Eiji Rekishi Jidai Bunko, or Eiji Yoshikawa's Historical Fiction in Paperback. Kodansha numbers the series from 1 to 80.

* 1 - 険難女難 (Kennan Jonan) - Sword Trouble, Woman Trouble

* 2 - 4 (in three volumes) - 鳴門秘帖 (Naruto Hitcho) - Secret Record of Naruto

* 5 - 7 (in three volumes) - 江戸三國志 (Edo Sangoku-shi) - The Three Kingdoms of Edo

* 8 - かんかん虫は唄う (Kankan Mushi wa Utau) - "Kan-kan the insect sings" and other stories

* 9 - 牢獄の花嫁 (Rougoku no Hanayome) - The Jail Bride

* 10 - 松の露八 (Matsu no Rohachi) - Rohachi of the Pines

* 11 - 13 (in three volumes) - 親鸞 (Shinran)

* 14 - 21 (in eight volumes) - 宮本武蔵 (Miyamoto Musashi)

* 22 - 32 (in eleven volumes) - 新書太閣記 (Shinsho Taiko ki) - Paperback Life of the Taiko

* 33 - 40 (in eight volumes) - 三國志 (Sangoku shi) - Romance of the Three Kingdoms

* 41 - 42 (in two volumes) - 源頼朝 (Minamoto Yoritomo)

* 43 - 上杉謙信 (Uesugi Kenshin)

* 44 - 黒田如水 (Kuroda Yoshitaka)

* 45 - 大岡越前 (Ooka Echizen)

* 46 - 平の将門 (Taira no Masakado)

* 47 - 62 (in sixteen volumes) - 新家物語 (Shin Heike monogatari) - New Tale of the Heike

* 63 - 70 (in eight volumes) - 私本太平記 (Shihon Taihei ki) - Private Record of the Pacific War

* 71 - 74 (in four volumes) - 新水滸伝 (Shin Suikoden) - New Tales from the Water Margin

* 75 - 治朗吉格子 (Jirokichi Goshi) - "Jirokichi Goshi" and other stories

* 76 - 柳生月影沙 (Yagyu Tsukikage sho) - "The Papers of Yagyu Tsukikage" and other stories

* 77 - 忘れ残りの記 (Wasurenokori no ki) - Record of Things Left Unforgotten

* 78 - 80 (in three volumes) - 神州天馬侠 (Shinshu Tenma Kyo)

Sources/References

http://www.kodansha.co.jp/yoshikawa/jinbutsu.html : The Yoshikawa Eiji House and Museum website, which is in Japanese

Encyclopedia Britannica "Yoshikawa Eiji." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 09 Aug, 2003 http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=80139.

See Also

Suggested Reading

Modified from the Wikipedia article available at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshikawa_Eiji

Yasuda Zenjirō

Lived 1838 to 1921.

Yayoi

Yokohama City

The capital of Kanagawa Prefecture (pg 165).

Yokoi Shonan

Lived 1809 to 1869.

Yokose Family

Yokoyama Gennosuke

Lived 1870 to 1915.

Yōmei-tennō

The 31st Emperor of Japan.

Reigned 585-587.

Yonai Mitsumasa

Lived 1880 to 1948.

Prime Minister from 16 January 1940 to 22 July 1940.

Cabinet

Name

Position

From

To

Shimada Toshio

Agriculture & Forestry

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Ishiwata Sōtarō

Chief of Cabinet Secretariat

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Hirose Hisatada

Chief of Legislative Bureau

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Koiso Kuniaki

Colonization

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Fujihara Ginjirō

Commerce & Industry

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Katsu Masanori

Communications

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Matsu'ura Shinjirō

Education

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Sakurauchi Yukio

Finance

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Arita Hachirō

Foreign Affairs

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Kodama Hideo

Home Affairs

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Kimura Naotatsu

Justice

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Yoshida Zengo

Navy

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Yonai Mitsumasa

Prime Minister

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Matsuno Tsuruhei

Railways

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Hata Shunroku

War

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Yoshida Shigeru

Welfare

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940

Table 146Yonai Mitsumasa's Cabinet

Yonemura Kaichirō

Yōrō

Nengō: 717--723.

Yoshida Castle

Yoshida Shigeru

Lived 1878 to 1967.

Prime Minister from:

22 May 1946 to 24 May 1947

15 October 1948 to 16 February 1949

16 February 1949 to 30 October 1952

30 October 1952 to 21 May 1953

21 May 1953 to 10 December 1954

Yoshida Shōin

Lived 1830 to 1859.

Yoshida Zengo

Lived

Cabinet

Position

From

To

Abe

Navy

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940

Yonai

Navy

Jan 16, 1940

July 22, 1940


Navy

July 22, 1940

Sept 05, 1940

Table 147Cabinet Positions Held by Yoshida Zengo

Yoshino Sakuzo

Lived 1878 to 1933.

Yōwa

Nengō: 1181--1181.

Yōzei-tennō

The 57th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 876 to 884.

Yukawa Hideki

Lived 1907 to 1981.

Yura Family

Yūryaku-tennō

The 20th emperor of Japan.

Reigned 456 to 479.

Zaibatsu – Zeami

Zaibatsu

Zeami

aka Kanze Motokiyo.

Lived 1363 to 1443.







Chronological List of Emperors

Here is a list of the Emperors of Japan. An (f) after an entry means female---ie an empress rather than an emperor. Reign dates are given. Birth and death dates are given (or will one day be given) in the individual entries.

Many of the emperors prior to about 500 A.D. are mythological. The entry in Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan [papinot_1972] for the “Nihon-ki” (pg 448) has a good summary of how unreliable the info on early emperors is.

Page

Emperor

From

To

Period

Notes

155

Jimmu

660

585 B.C.

Traditional



Suizei

581

549 B.C.

Traditional



Annei

549

511 B.C.

Traditional



Itoku

510

477 B.C.

Traditional



Kōshō

475

393 B.C.

Traditional



Kōan

392

291 B.C.

Traditional



Kōrei

290

215 B.C.

Traditional



Kōgen

214

158 B.C.

Traditional



Kaika

158

98 B.C.

Traditional



Sujin

97

30 B.C.

Traditional



Suinin

29 B.C.

70 A.D.

Traditional



Keikō

71

130

Traditional



Seimu

131

190

Traditional



Chūai

192

200

Traditional



(Jingū Kōgō??)



Traditional



Ōjin

270

310

Traditional



Nintoku

313

399

Traditional



Richū

400

405

Traditional



Hanzei

406

410

Traditional



Ingyō

412

453

Traditional



Ankō

453

456

Traditional



Yūryaku

456

479

Traditional



Seinei

480

484

Traditional



Kenzō

485

487

Traditional



Ninken

488

498

Traditional



Buretsu

498

506

Traditional



Keitai

507

531

Traditional



Ankan

531

535

Traditional



Senka

535

539

Traditional



Kimmei

539

571

Yamato



Bitatsu

572

585

Yamato



Yōmei

585

587

Yamato



Sushun

587

592

Yamato



Suiko (f)

592

628

Yamato



Jomei

629

641

Yamato



Kōgyoku (f)

642

645

Yamato



Kōtoku

645

654

Yamato



Saimei (f)

655

661

Yamato



Tenji

662

671

Yamato



Kōbun

671

672

Yamato



Temmu

673

686

Yamato



Jitō (f)

690

697

Yamato



Mommu

697

707

Yamato



Gemmei

707

715

Yamato



Genshō

715

724

Nara



Shōmu

724

749

Nara



Kōken (f)

749

758

Nara



Junnin

758

764

Nara



Shōtoku (f)

764

770

Nara



Kōnin

770

781

Nara



Kammu

781

806

Heian



Heizei

806

809

Heian



Saga

809

823

Heian



Junna

823

833

Heian



Nimmyō

833

850

Heian



Montoku

850

858

Heian



Seiwa

858

876

Heian



Yōzei

876

884

Heian



Kōkō

884

887

Heian



Uda

887

897

Heian



Daigo

897

930

Heian



Suzaku

930

946

Heian



Murakami

946

967

Heian



Reizei

967

969

Heian



En'yū

969

984

Heian



Kazan

984

986

Heian



Ichijō

986

1011

Heian



Sanjō

1011

1016

Heian



Goichijō

1016

1036

Heian



Gosuzaku

1036

1045

Heian



Goreizei

1045

1068

Heian



Gosanjō

1068

1072

Heian



Shirakawa

1072

1086

Heian



Horikawa

1086

1107

Heian



Toba

1107

1123

Heian



Sutoku

1123

1141

Heian



Konoe

1141

1155

Heian



Goshirakawa

1155

1158

Heian



Nijō

1158

1165

Heian



Rokujō

1165

1168

Heian



Takakura

1168

1180

Heian



Antoku

1180

1183

Heian



Gotoba

1183

1198

Heian



Tsuchimikado

1198

1210

Kamakura



Juntoku

1210

1221

Kamakura



Chūkyō

1221

1221

Kamakura



Gohorikawa

1221

1232

Kamakura



Shijō

1232

1242

Kamakura



Gosaga

1242

1246

Kamakura



Gofukakusa

1246

1259

Kamakura



Kameyama

1259

1274

Kamakura



Gouda

1274

1287

Kamakura



Fushimi

1288

1298

Kamakura



Gofushimi

1298

1301

Kamakura



Gonijō

1301

1308

Kamakura



Hanazono

1308

1318

Kamakura



Godaigo

1318

1339

Kamakura



Gomurakami

1339

1368

Muramachi



Chōkei

1368

1383

Muramachi



Gokameyama

1383

1392

Muramachi



Gokomatsu

1392

1412

Muramachi



Shōkō

1412

1428

Muramachi



Gohanazono

1429

1464

Muramachi



Gotsuchimikado

1465

1500

Muramachi



Gokashiwabara

1500

1526

Muramachi



Gonara

1526

1557

Muramachi



Ōgimachi

1557

1586

Muramachi



Goyōzei

1586

1611

Muramachi



Gomizunō

1611

1629

Edo



Meishō (f)

1630

1643

Edo



Gokōmyō

1643

1654

Edo



Gosai

1656

1663

Edo



Reigen

1663

1687

Edo



Higashiyama

1687

1709

Edo



Nakamikado

1710

1735

Edo



Sakuramachi

1735

1747

Edo



Momozono

1747

1762

Edo



Gosakuramachi

1763

1770

Edo



Gomomozono

1771

1779

Edo



Kōkaku

1780

1817

Edo



Ninkō

1817

1846

Edo



Kōmei

1847

1866

Edo



Meiji

1866

1912

Modern



Taishō

1912

1926

Modern



Shōwa

1926

1989

Modern



Heisei

1989

present

Modern


Table 148Chronological List of Emperors

Northern Court

Page

Emperor

From

To

Notes


Kōgon

1331

1333

lived 1313-1364


Kōmyō

1336

1348

lived 1322-1380


Sukō

1348

1351

lived 1334-1398


Go-Kōgon

1352

1371

lived 1338-1374


Go-En'yū

1371

1382

lived 1359-1393

not a ...

Table 149Emperors of the Northern Court

Sources: New Nelson's Kanji Dictionary, pg. 1253-1256, the Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan, pg. 815-817, and the entry “List of Emperors of Japan” at wikipedia.



Prime Ministers, 1885 to Present

This list is compiled from Janet Hunter's excellent Concise Dictionary of Japanese History [hunter_1984], Japanese government web sites, articles from the Japan Times, and miscellaneous web sites related to Japanese history.

Page

Prime Minister

From

To

Notes


Itō Hirobumi

Dec 22, 1885

Apr 30, 1888

1st Itō


Kuroda Kiyotaka

Apr 30, 1888

Dec 24, 1889



Yamagata Aritomo

Dec 24, 1889

May 6, 1891

1st Yamagata


Matsukata Masayoshi

May 6, 1891

Aug 8, 1892

1st Matsukata


Itō Hirobumi

Aug 8, 1892

Dec 30, 1899

2nd Itō


Matsukata Masayoshi

Sep 18, 1896

Jan 12, 1898

2nd Matsukata


Itō Hirobumi

Jan 12, 1898

Jun 30, 1898

3rd Itō


Ōkuma Shigenobu

Jun 30, 1898

Nov 8, 1898

1st Ōkuma


Yamagata Aritomo

Nov 8, 1898

Oct 19, 1900

2nd Yamagata


Itō Hirobumi

Oct 19, 1900

Jun 2, 1901

4th Itō


Katsura Tarō

Jun 2, 1901

Jan 7, 1906

1st Katsura


Saionji Kinmochi

Jan 7, 1906

Jul 14, 1908

1st Saionji


Katsura Tarō

Jul 14, 1908

Aug 30, 1911

2nd Katsura


Saionji Kinmochi

Aug 30, 1911

Dec 21, 1912

2nd Saionji


Katsura Tarō

Dec 21, 1912

Feb 20, 1913

3rd Katsura


Yamamoto Gonnohyōe

Feb 20, 1913

Apr 16, 1914

1st Yamamoto


Ōkuma Shigenobu

Apr 16, 1914

Oct 9, 1916

2nd Ōkuma


Terauchi Masatake

Oct 9, 1916

Sep 29, 1918



Hara Kei

Sep 29, 1918

Nov 13, 1921



Takahashi Korekiyo

Nov 13, 1921

Jun 12, 1922



Katō Tomosaburō

Jun 12, 1922

Sep 2, 1923

Katō Tomosaburō


Yamamoto Gonnohyōe

Sep 2, 1923

Jan 7, 1924

2nd Yamamoto


Kiyoura Keigo

Jan 7, 1924

Jun 11, 1924



Katō Takaaki

Jun 11, 1924

Aug 2, 1925

1st Katō Takaaki


Katō Takaaki

Aug 2, 1925

Jan 30, 1926

2nd Katō Takaaki


Wakatsuki Reijirō

Jan 30, 1926

Apr 20, 1927

1st Wakatsuki


Tanaka Giichi

Apr 20, 1927

Jul 2, 1929

Tanaka G.


Hamaguchi Osachi

Jul 2, 1929

Apr 14, 1931



Wakatsuki Reijirō

Apr 14, 1931

Dec 13, 1931

2nd Wakatsuki


Inukai Tsuyoshi

Dec 13, 1931

May 26, 1932

check dates


Saitō Makoto

May 26, 1932

Jul 8, 1934



Okada Keisuke

Jul 8, 1934

Mar 9, 1936



Hirota Kōki

Mar 9, 1936

Feb 2, 1937



Hayashi Senjūrō

Feb 2, 1937

Jun 4, 1937



Konoe Fumimaro

Jun 4, 1937

Jan 5, 1939

1st Konoe


Hiranuma Kiichirō

Jan 5, 1939

Aug 30, 1939



Abe Nobuyuki

Aug 30, 1939

Jan 16, 1940



Yonai Mitsumasa

Jan 16, 1940

Jul 22, 1940



Konoe Fumimaro

Jul 22, 1940

Jul 18, 1941

2nd Konoe


Konoe Fumimaro

Jul 18, 1941

Oct 18, 1941

3rd Konoe


Tōjō Hideki

Oct 18, 1941

Jul 22, 1944



Koiso Kuniaki

Jul 22, 1944

Apr 7, 1945



Suzuki Kantarō

Apr 7, 1945

Aug 17, 1945

Suzuki K.


Higashikuni Naruhiko

Aug 17, 1945

Oct 9, 1945



Shidehara Kijūrō

Oct 9, 1945

May 22, 1946



Yoshida Shigeru

May 22, 1946

May 24, 1947

1st Yoshida


Katayama Tetsu

May 24, 1947

Mar 10, 1948



Ashida Hitoshi

Mar 10, 1948

Oct 15, 1948



Yoshida Shigeru

Oct 15, 1948

Feb 16, 1949

2nd Yoshida


Yoshida Shigeru

Feb 16, 1949

Oct 30, 1952

3rd Yoshida


Yoshida Shigeru

Oct 30, 1952

May 21, 1953

4th Yoshida


Yoshida Shigeru

May 21, 1953

Dec 10, 1954

5th Yoshida


Hatoyama Ichirō

Dec 10, 1954

Mar 19, 1955

1st Hatoyama


Hatoyama Ichirō

Mar 19, 1955

Nov 22, 1955

2nd Hatoyama


Hatoyama Ichirō

Nov 22, 1955

Dec 23, 1956

3rd Hatoyama


Ishibashi Tanzan

Dec 23, 1956

Feb 25, 1957



Kishi Nobusuke

Feb 25, 1957

Jun 12, 1958

1st Kishi


Kishi Nobusuke

Jun 12, 1958

Jul 19, 1960

2nd Kishi


Ikeda Hayato

Jul 19, 1960

Dec 8, 1960

1st Ikeda


Ikeda Hayato

Dec 8, 1960

Dec 9, 1963

2nd Ikeda


Ikeda Hayato

Dec 9, 1963

Nov 9, 1964

3rd Ikeda


Satō Eisaku

Nov 9, 1964

Feb 17, 1967

1st Satō


Satō Eisaku

Feb 17, 1967

Jan 14, 1970

2nd Satō


Satō Eisaku

Jan 14, 1970

Jul 7, 1972

3rd Satō


Tanaka Kakuei

Jul 7, 1972

Dec 22, 1972

1st Tanaka K.


Tanaka Kakuei

Dec 22, 1972

Dec 9, 1974

2nd Tanaka K.


Miki Takeo

Dec 9, 1974

Dec 24, 1976



Fukuda Takeo

Dec 24, 1976

Dec 7, 1978



Ōhira Masayoshi

Dec 7, 1978

Nov 9, 1979

1st Ōhira


Ōhira Masayoshi

Nov 9, 1979

Jul 18, 1980

2nd Ōhira


Suzuki Zenkō

Jul 18, 1980

Nov 26, 1982

Suzuki Z.


Nakasone Yasuhiro

Nov 26, 1982

Dec 27, 1983

1st Nakasone


Nakasone Yasuhiro

Dec 27, 1983

Jul 22, 1986

2nd Nakasone


Nakasone Yasuhiro

Jul 22, 1986

Nov 6, 1987

3rd Nakasone


Takeshita Noboru

Nov 6, 1987

Jun 2, 1989



Uno Sosuke

Jun 2, 1989

Aug 10, 1989

check dates!


Kaifu Toshiki

Aug 10, 1989

Feb 28, 1990

1st Kaifu


Kaifu Toshiki

Feb 28, 1990

Nov 5, 1991

2nd Kaifu


Miyazawa Kiichi

Nov 5, 1991

Aug 9, 1993



Hosokawa Morihiro

Aug 9, 1993

Apr 28, 1994



Hata Tsutomu

Apr 28, 1994

Jun 30, 1994



Murayama Tomiichi

Jun 29, 1994

Jan 11, 1996



Hashimoto Ryūtarō

Jan 11, 1996

Nov 7, 1996

1st Hashimoto


Hashimoto Ryūtarō

Nov 7, 1996

Jul 30, 1998

2nd Hashimoto


Obuchi Keizō

Jul 30, 1998

Apr 5, 2000



Mori Yoshirō

Apr 5, 2000

Jul 4, 2000

1st Mori


Mori Yoshirō

Jul 4, 2000

Apr 26, 2001

2nd Mori


Koizumi Jun'ichirō

Apr 26, 2001



Table 150Prime Ministers, 1885 to Present



Alphabetical List of the Prefectures

This table is based on data from Noritaka Yagasaki's Japan: Geographical Perspectives on an Island Nation [yagasaki_1997], 3rd Edition, published by Teikoku-Shoin, 1997.

Page

Name

Area (km2 )

Capital

Population


Aichi

5,150

Nagoya City

6,770,000


Akita

11,612

Akita City

1,220,000


Aomori

9,605

Aomori City

1,510,000


Chiba

5,156

Chiba City

5,780,000


Ehime

5,675

Matsuyama City

1,520,000


Fukui

4,188

Fukui City

830,000


Fukuoka

4,968

Fukuoka City

4,900,000


Fukushima

13,782

Fukushima City

2,140,000


Gifu

10,598

Gifu City

2,100,000


Gunma

6,363

Maebashi City

2,000,000


Hiroshima

8,475

Hiroshima City

2,870,000


Hokkaidō

83,452

Sapporo City

5,690,000


Hyōgo

8,387

Kōbe City

5,420,000


Ibaraki

6,094

Mito City

2,970,000


Ishikawa

4,185

Kanazawa City

1,170,000


Iwate

15,278

Morioka City

1,430,000


Kagawa

1,875

Takamatsu City

1,030,000


Kagoshima

9,186

Kagoshima City

1,800,000


Kanagawa

2,414

Yokohama City

8,170,000


Kōchi

7,104

Kōchi City

830,000


Kumamoto

7,403

Kumamoto City

1,870,000


Kyōto

4,612

Kyōto City

2,550,000


Mie

5,774

Tsu City

1,840,000


Miyagi

7,285

Sendai City

2,310,000


Miyazaki

7,734

Miyazaki City

1,190,000


Nagano

13,585

Nagano City

2,190,000


Nagasaki

4,091

Nagasaki City

1,550,000


Nara

3,691

Nara City

1,440,000


Niigata

12,582

Niigata City

2,490,000


Ōita

6,337

Ōita City

1,240,000


Okayama

7,111

Okayama City

1,950,000


Okinawa

2,266

Naha City

1,290,000


Ōsaka

1,892

Ōsaka City

8,590,000


Saga

2,439

Saga City

890,000


Saitama

3,797

Urawa City

6,720,000


Shiga

4,017

Ōtsu City

1,280,000


Shimane

6,707

Matsue City

770,000


Shizuoka

7,779

Shizuoka City

3,730,000


Tochigi

6,408

Utsunomiya City

1,980,000


Tokushima

4,144

Tokushima City

840,000


Tōkyō

2,187

Tōkyō City

11,540,000


Tottori

3,507

Tottori City

620,000


Toyama

4,427

Toyama City

1,130,000


Wakayama

4,724

Wakayama City

1,100,000


Yamagata

9,323

Yamagata City

1,260,000


Yamaguchi

6,110

Yamaguchi City

1,550,000


Yamanashi

4,465

Kōfu City

880,000

Table 151Alphabetical List of the Prefectures





Provinces and Corresponding Prefectures

This table lists the old provinces but is ordered by prefecture more or less from north to south. This makes it easier to see which provinces make up the current prefectures. Also listed are the region to which each prefecture / province belongs. The first is the region as given in the New Nelson's Kanji Dictionary. Next to that is the region as given by the older and sometimes less reliable Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan [papinot_1972].

Page

Province

Prefecture

Region (Nelson's)

Region (HGDJ)


Mutsu

Aomori

Tōhoku



Ugo

Akita

Tōhoku

Tōsandō


Rikuchū

Iwate

Tōhoku

Tōsandō


Rikuzen

Miyagi

Tōhoku

Tōsandō


Uzen

Yamagata

Tōhoku

Tōsandō


Iwashiro

Fukushima

Tōhoku

Tōsandō


Iwaki

Fukushima, Miyagi

Tōhoku

Tōsandō


Hitachi

Ibaraki

Kantō

Tōkaidō


Shimotsuke

Tochigi

Kantō

Tōsandō


Kōzuke

Gunma

Kantō

Tōsandō


Musashi

Saitama, Tōkyō

Kantō

Tōkaidō


Sagami

Kanagawa

Kantō

Tōkaidō


Shimōsa

Chiba

Kantō

Tōkaidō


Kazusa

Chiba

Kantō

Tōkaidō


Awa

Chiba

Kantō

Tōkaidō


Echigo

Niigata

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Sado

Niigata

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Etchū

Toyama

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Kaga

Ishikawa

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Noto

Ishikawa

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Echizen

Fukui

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Wakasa

Fukui

Chūbu

Hokurokudō


Suruga

Shizuoka

Chūbu

Tōkaidō


Izu

Shizuoka

Chūbu

Tōkaidō


Kai

Yamanashi

Chūbu

Tōkaidō


Shinano

Nagano

Chūbu

Tōsandō


Mikawa

Aichi

Chūbu

Tōkaidō


Owari

Aichi

Chūbu

Tōkaidō


Mino

Gifu

Chūbu

Tōsandō


Hida

Gifu

Chūbu

Tōsandō


Ōmi

Shiga

Kinki

Tōsandō


Yamashiro

Kyōto

Kinki

Go-Kinai


Tamba

Kyōto

Kinki

San'indō


Tango

Kyōto

Kinki

San'indō


Izumi

Ōsaka

Kinki

Go-Kinai


Kawachi

Ōsaka

Kinki

Go-Kinai


Yamato

Nara

Kinki

Go-Kinai


Kii

Wakayama

Kinki

Nankaidō


Ise

Mie

Kinki

Tōkaidō


Iga

Mie

Kinki

Tōkaidō


Tajima

Hyōgo

Kinki

San'indō


Settsu

Hyōgo

Kinki

Go-Kinai


Harima

Hyōgo

Kinki

San'yōdō


Awaji

Hyōgo

Kinki

Nankaidō


Bizen

Okayama

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Bitchū

Okayama

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Mimasaka

Okayama

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Bingo

Hiroshima

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Aki

Hiroshima

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Nagato

Yamaguchi

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Suō

Yamaguchi

Chūgoku

San'yōdō


Inaba

Tottori

Chūgoku

San'indō


Hōki

Tottori

Chūgoku

San'indō


Izumo

Shimane

Chūgoku

San'indō


Iwami

Shimane

Chūgoku

San'indō


Oki

Shimane

Chūgoku

San'indō


Sanuki

Kagawa

Shikoku

Nankaidō


Iyo

Ehime

Shikoku

Nankaidō


Awa

Tokushima

Shikoku

Nankaidō


Tosa

Kōchi

Shikoku

Nankaidō


Chikuzen

Fukuoka

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Buzen

Fukuoka

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Bungo

Ōita

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Hyūga

Miyazaki

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Chikugo

Saga

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Hizen

Nagasaki

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Iki

Nagasaki

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Tsushima

Nagasaki

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Higo

Kumamoto

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Satsuma

Kagoshima

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Ōsumi

Kagoshima

Kyūshū

Saikaidō


Ryūkyū

Okinawa

Ryūkyū

Saikaidō

Table 152Provinces and Corresponding Prefectures





Chronological List of Nengō

Sources: New Nelson's Kanji Dictionary, the Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan [papinot_1972], and “Japanese Era Names” (available from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Japanese_era_name).

The “aka xxx” in the notes column usually means that the listed nengo (“xxx”) is given in Papinot as an alternate reading for the kanji, but does not appear in the list given in New Nelson's.

Page

Nengo

Japanese

From

To

Notes


Taika

大化

645

649



Hakuchi

白雉

650

654



Hakuchō


673

685



Shuchō

朱鳥

686

689



Taihō

大宝

701

703



Keiun

慶雲

704

707

aka Kyōun


Wadō

和銅

708

714



Reiki

霊亀

715

716



Yōrō

養老

717

723



Jinki

神亀

724

728

aka Shinki


Tempyō

天平

729

748



Tempyō-kampō

天平感宝

749

749



Tempyō-shōhō

天平勝宝

749

756



Tempyō-hōji

天平宝字

757

764



Tempyō-jingo

天平神護

765

766

aka Tempyō-shingo


Jingo-keiun

神護景雲

767

769



Hōki

宝亀

770

780



Ten'ō

天応

781

781



Enryaku

延暦

782

805



Daidō

大同

806

809



Kōnin

弘仁

810

823



Tenchō

天長

824

833



Shōwa

承和

834

847

aka Jōwa


Kajō

嘉祥

848

850

aka Kashō


Ninju

仁寿

851

853



Saikō

斉衡

854

856

aka Seiko??


Tennan

天安

857

858

aka Ten'an?


Jōgan

貞観

859

876

aka Jōkan


Genkei

元慶

877

884



Ninna

仁和

885

888

aka Ninwa


Kampyō

寛平

889

897



Shōtai

昌泰

898

900



Engi

延喜

901

922



Enchō

延長

923

930



Shōhei

承平

931

937

aka Jōhei, Shōhyō


Tengyō

天慶

938

946

aka Tenkei


Tenryaku

天暦

948

956



Tentoku

天徳

957

960



Ōwa

応和

961

963



Kōhō

康保

964

967



Anna

安和

968

969

aka Anwa


Tenroku

天禄

970

972



Ten'en

天延

973

975



Jōgen

貞元

976

977

aka Teigen


Tengen

天元

978

982



Eikan

永観

983

984



Kanna

寛和

985

986

aka Kanwa


Eien

永延

987

988



Eiso

永祚

989

989



Shōryaku

正暦

990

994



Chōtoku

長徳

995

998



Chōhō

長保

999

1003



Kankō

寛弘

1004

1011



Chōwa

長和

1012

1016



Kannin

寛仁

1017

1020



Jian

治安

1021

1023

aka Chian


Manju

万寿

1024

1027



Chōgen

長元

1028

1036



Chōryaku

長暦

1037

1039

aka Chōreki


Chōkyū

長久

1040

1043



Kantoku

寛徳

1044

1045



Eishō

永承

1046

1052

aka Eijō


Tengi

天喜

1053

1057



Kōhei

康平

1058

1064



Jireki

治暦

1065

1068

aka Chiryaku


Eikyū

延久

1069

1073



Jōhō

承保

1074

1076

aka Shōhō


Shōryaku

承暦

1077

1080

aka Jōreki


Eihō

永保

1081

1083



Ōtoku

応徳

1084

1086



Kanji

寛治

1087

1093



Kahō

嘉保

1094

1095



Eichō

永長

1096

1096



Jōtoku

承徳

1097

1098

aka Shōtoku


Kōwa

康和

1099

1103



Chōji

長治

1104

1105



Kajō

嘉承

1106

1107

aka Kashō


Tennin

天仁

1108

1109



Ten'ei

天永

1110

1112



Eikyū

永久

1113

1117



Gen'ei

元永

1118

1119

aka Gan'ei


Hōan

保安

1120

1123



Tenji

天治

1124

1125

aka Tenju


Daiji

大治

1126

1130

aka Taiji


Tenshō

天承

1131

1131



Chōshō

長承

1132

1134

aka Chōjō ??


Hōen

保延

1135

1140



Eiji

永治

1141

1141



Kōji

康治

1142

1143



Ten'yō

天養

1144

1144



Kyūan

久安

1145

1150



Nimpei

仁平

1151

1153

aka Nimpyō


Kyūju

久寿

1154

1155



Hōgen

保元

1156

1158



Heiji

平治

1159

1159

aka Byōji


Enryaku

永暦

1160

1160



Ōhō

応保

1161

1162



Chōkan

長寛

1163

1164



Eiman

永万

1165

1165



Ninnan

仁安

1166

1168

aka Nin'an


Kaō

嘉応

1169

1170



Shōan

承安

1171

1174

aka Jōan


Angen

安元

1175

1176



Jishō

治承

1177

1180

aka Jijō


Yōwa

養和

1181

1181



Juei

寿永

1182

1183



Genryaku

元暦

1184

1184

aka Ganryaku, Genreki


Bunji

文治

1185

1189



Kenkyū

建久

1190

1198



Shōji

正治

1199

1200



Kennin

建仁

1201

1203



Genkyū

元久

1204

1205



Ken'ei

建永

1206

1206



Jōgen

承元

1207

1210

aka Shōgen


Kenryaku

建暦

1211

1212



Kempō

建保

1213

1218



Jōkyū

承久

1219

1221

aka Shōkyū


Jōō

貞応

1222

1223

aka Teiō


Gennin

元仁

1224

1224



Karoku

嘉禄

1225

1226



Antei

安貞

1227

1228



Kanki

寛喜

1229

1231



Jōei

貞永

1232

1232

aka Teiei


Tempuku

天福

1233

1233



Bunryaku

文暦

1234

1234



Katei

嘉禎

1235

1237



Ryakunin

暦仁

1238

1238



En'ō

延応

1239

1239



Ninji

仁治

1240

1242



Kangen

寛元

1243

1246



Hōji

宝治

1247

1248



Kenchō

建長

1249

1255



Kōgen

康元

1256

1256



Shōka

正嘉

1257

1258



Shōgen

正元

1259

1259



Bun'ō

文応

1260

1260



Kōchō

弘長

1261

1263



Bun'ei

文永

1264

1274



Kenji

建治

1275

1277



Kōan

弘安

1278

1287



Shōō

正応

1288

1292



Einin

永仁

1293

1298



Shōan

正安

1299

1301



Kengen

乾元

1302

1302



Kagen

嘉元

1303

1305



Tokuji

徳治

1306

1307



Enkyō

延慶

1308

1310

aka Enkei


Ōchō

応長

1311

1311



Shōwa

正和

1312

1316



Bumpō

文保

1317

1318



Gen'ō

元応

1319

1320



Genkō

元亨

1321

1323

aka Genkyō


Shōchū

正中

1324

1325



Karyaku

嘉暦

1326

1328

aka Kareki


Gentoku

元徳

1329

1330



Genkō

元弘

1331

1333



Kemmu

建武

1334

1335

see pg 270


Engen

延元

1336

1339



Kōkoku

興国

1340

1345



Shōhei

正平

1346

1369

aka Shōhyō


Kentoku

建徳

1370

1371



Bunchū

文中

1371

1375



Kōwa

弘和

1381

1383



Genchū

元中

1384

1392



Meitoku

明徳

1393

1393

Southern & Northern Courts Reunited


Ōei

応永

1394

1427



Shōchō

正長

1428

1428



Eikyō

永享

1429

1440



Kakitsu

嘉吉

1441

1443



Bunnan

文安

1444

1448

aka Bun'an


Hōtoku

宝徳

1449

1451



Kyōtoku

享徳

1452

1454

aka Kōtoku


Kōshō

康正

1455

1456



Chōroku

長禄

1457

1459



Kanshō

寛正

1460

1465



Bunshō

文正

1466

1466



Ōnin

応仁

1467

1468



Bummei

文明

1469

1486



Chōkyō

長享

1487

1488

aka Chōkō


Entoku

延徳

1489

1491



Meiō

明応

1492

1500



Bunki

文亀

1501

1503



Eishō

永正

1504

1520



Daiei

大永

1521

1527

aka Taiei


Kyōroku

享禄

1528

1531



Temmon

天文

1532

1554

aka Tembun


Kōji

弘治

1555

1557



Eiroku

永禄

1558

1569



Genki

元亀

1570

1572



Tenshō

天正

1573

1591



Bunroku

文禄

1592

1595



Keichō

慶長

1596

1614



Genna

元和

1615

1623

aka Genwa


Kan'ei

寛永

1624

1643



Shōhō

正保

1644

1647



Keian

慶安

1648

1651



Jōō

承応

1652

1654

aka Shōō


Meireki

明暦

1655

1657



Manji

万治

1658

1660



Kambun

寛文

1661

1672



Empō

延宝

1673

1680



Tenna

天和

1681

1683

aka Tenwa


Jōkyō

貞享

1684

1687

aka Teikyō


Genroku

元禄

1688

1703



Hōei

宝永

1704

1710



Shōtoku

正徳

1711

1715



Kyōhō

享保

1716

1735



Gembun

元文

1736

1740



Kampō

寛保

1741

1743



Enkyō

延享

1744

1747



Kan'en

寛延

1748

1750



Hōreki

宝暦

1751

1763



Meiwa

明和

1764

1771



An'ei

安永

1772

1780



Temmei

天明

1781

1788



Kansei

寛政

1789

1800



Kyōwa

享和

1801

1803



Bunka

文化

1804

1817



Bunsei

文政

1818

1829



Tempō

天保

1830

1843



Kōka

弘化

1844

1847



Kaei

嘉永

1848

1853



Ansei

安政

1854

1859



Man'en

万延

1860

1860



Bunkyū

文久

1861

1863



Genji

元治

1864

1864

aka Ganji


Keiō

慶応

1865

1867



Meiji

明治

1868

1912



Taishō

大正

1912

1925



Shōwa

昭和

1926

1988



Heisei

平成

1989



Table 153Chronological List of Nengō

Northern Court

Page

Nengō

Japanese

From

To

Notes


Ryakuō


1338

1341

Northern


Kōei


1342

1344

Northern


Teiwa


1345

1349

Northern


Kan'ō


1350

1351

Northern


Bunwa


1352

1355

Northern


Embun


1356

1360

Northern


Kōan


1361

1362

Northern


Jōji


1362

1367

Northern


Ōan


1368

1374

Northern


Eiwa


1375

1378

Northern


Kōryaku


1379

1380

Northern


Eitoku


1381

1383

Northern


Shitoku


1384

1386

Northern


Kakei


1387

1388

Northern


Kōō


1389

1389

Northern


Meitoku


1390

1393

Northern

Table 154 List of Nengō of the Northern Court





List of the Shōgun

Kamakura Shōgunate

Page

Name

Birth

Begin

End

Death


Minamoto Yoritomo

1147

1192

1199

1199


Minamoto Yoriie

1182

1202

1203

1204


Minamoto Sanetomo

1192

1203

1219

1219


Fujiwara Yoritsune

1218

1226

1244

1256


Fujiwara Yoritsugu

1239

1244

1252

1256


Munetaka

1242

1252

1266

1274


Koreyasu

1264

1266

1289

1326


Hisaakira

1274

1289

1308

1328


Morikuni

1301

1308

1333

1333


Morinaga

1308

1333

1334

1335


Narinaga

1325

1334

1338

1338

Table 155List of the Kamakura Shōgun

Ashikaga Shōgunate

Page

Name

Birth

Begin

End

Death


Ashikaga Takauji

1308

1338

1358

1358


Ashikaga Yoshiakira

1330

1358

1367

1368


Ashikaga Yoshimitsu

1358

1367

1395

1408


Ashikaga Yoshimochi

1386

1395

1423

1428


Ashikaga Yoshikazu

1407

1423

1425

1425


Ashikaga Yoshinori

1394

1428

1441

1441


Ashikaga Yoshikatsu

1433

1441

1443

1443


Ashikaga Yoshimasa

1435

1449

1474

1490


Ashikaga Yoshihisa

1465

1474

1489

1489


Ashikaga Yoshitane

1465

1490

1493

1522


Ashikaga Yoshizumi

1478

1493

1508

1511


Ashikaga Yoshitane

1465

1508

1521

1522


Ashikaga Yoshiharu

1510

1521

1545

1550


Ashikaga Yoshiteru

1535

1545

1565

1565


Ashikaga Yoshihide

1564

1568

1568

1568


Ashikaga Yoshiaki

1537

1568

1573

1597

Table 156List of the Ashikaga Shōgun

Tokugawa Shōgunate

Page

Name

Birth

Begin

End

Death


Tokugawa Ieyasu

1542

1603

1605

1616


Tokugawa Hidetada

1579

1605

1623

1632


Tokugawa Iemitsu

1604

1623

1651

1651


Tokugawa Ietsuna

1641

1651

1680

1680


Tokugawa Tsunayoshi

1646

1680

1709

1709


Tokugawa Ienobu

1662

1709

1712

1712


Tokugawa Ietsugu

1709

1712

1716

1716


Tokugawa Yoshimune

1684

1716

1745

1751


Tokugawa Ieshige

1711

1745

1760

1761


Tokugawa Ieharu

1737

1760

1786

1786


Tokugawa Ienari

1773

1786

1837

1841


Tokugawa Ieyoshi

1793

1837

1853

1853


Tokugawa Iesada

1824

1853

1858

1858


Tokugawa Iemochi

1846

1858

1866

1866


Tokugawa Keiki

1837

1866

1868


Table 157List of the Tokugawa Shōgun



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Bibliography

[bryant_1995] Bryant, Anthony J., Sekigahara 1600: The Final Struggle for Power, Osprey, 1995

[hiyama_1994] Hiyama Yoshiaki, 暗号を盗んだ男達, Kanjinsha, 1994

[hunter_1984] Hunter, Janet E., Concise Dictionary of Japanese History, University of California Press, 1984

[kahn_1996] Kahn, David, The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing, Schribner, 1996

[kahn_2004] Kahn, David, The Reader of Gentlemen's Mail, Herbert O. Yardley and the Birth of American Codebreaking, Yale University Press, 2004

[kurosawa_1983] Kurosawa, Akira, Something Like an Autobiography, Vintage Books, USA, 1983

[papinot_1972] Papinot, E., Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Japan, Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc.,

[sansom_1961] Sansom, George B., A History of Japan, 1334-1615, Stanford University Press, 1961

[takagawa_2003] Takagawa, Toshio, 暗号解読入門, PHP, 2003

[turnbull_1998] Turnbull, Stephan, The Samurai Sourcebook, Cassell & Co., 1998

[yagasaki_1997] Yagasaki, Noritaka, Japan: Geographical Perspectives on an Island Nation, Teikoku-Shoin, 1997

[yardley_1931] Yardley, Herbert O., American Black Chamber, The, Bobbs-Merrill, 1931



1different, older form of i in 11

2[takagawa_2003] pg 161

3To fit the English alphabet into a five-by-five square, the encoder either drops one letter or puts two in one square.

4Smith, p. 17

56 vowels (including “y”) times 21 consonants (also including “y” and assuming they used all English consonants and not just the romaji consonants) times 2 (because the reverse - “ed” and “de” - is also okay) gives 252 total groups.

6\footnote{Yardley, p. 176}

7Kahn, p. 157-161, discusses French cryptological activity in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

8Yardley, p. 184

9Kahn page 1053, endnote to page 358, says that there were no three letter groups in the telegram. Yardley makes the claim on pages 289-290.

10Takagawa, p. 177

11Hiyama, p. 29

12Hiyama, p. 9

13Hiyama, p. 34

14Hiyama, p. 31

15Hiyama p. 35-36

16Hiyama, p. 36

17Hiyama, p. 39-40

18Hiyama, p. 36

19Takagawa, p. 179, Yardley p. 184

20Yardley, p. 184

21George Sansom, A History of Japan, 1334-1615, pg ??

22Hideyoshi Hashiba became infamous for his use of terror tactics to maintain control over populations and to punish those who dared to oppose him. To punish Akamatsu and his followers, Hideyoshi searched out and found the wives and children of the soldiers defending the castle. He then crucified all of them, as an object lesson to his opponents.

23Note: Japanese history textbooks have it that Amago defended the castle with five thousand men, but the physical size of the castle and the mountain itself quickly discredit this claim as an impossibility.